Many cellular functions depend on the tightly regulated expression of various proteins. Canonical control of the protein expression is associated with transcriptional regulation. However, the small non-coding RNAs called microRNAs (miRNAs) were identified as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. In a typical manner, miRNAs originate similarly to the coding RNAs and are processed in a multi-step maturation process. It has been shown that miRNAs are very important for the proper functioning of tissues. Interestingly, the human nervous system contains over 70% of all miRNAs; thus, the maturation process has to be tightly regulated. However, despite the important role of miRNAs, little is known about the mechanisms regulating their biogenesis. In my PhD project, I showed that during early stages of neuronal differentiation, Lin28a controls levels of neuro-specific miRNA-9. I demonstrated that Lin28a binds to the conserved terminal loop (CTL) of pre-miRNA-9 and decreases the cellular levels of miRNA-9 during retinoic acid-mediated neuronal differentiation of mouse teratocarcinoma P19 cells. I revealed that the Lin28a-mediated inhibition of miRNA-9 production was uridylation-independent. Furthermore, constitutive expression of GFP-tagged Lin28a reduced the levels of let-7a but not miRNA-9, whereas untagged Lin28a inhibited both miR-9 and let-7a during the course of neuronal differentiation. Using small RNAseq analysis of P19 cells with constitutive expression of Lin28a I showed that it controls many more miRNAs than previously recognised. Intriguingly, many miRNAs were upregulated by Lin28a overexpression. I demonstrated with high-throughput, the limited function of GFP-tagged Lin28a results, and I also showed that untagged Lin28a inhibits the production of a number of brain-specific miRNAs including miRNA-9. Finally, I revealed that 3’-5’exoribonuclease Dis3l2 was responsible for uridylation-independent degradation of pre-miRNA-9. Altogether, my results provided evidence that Lin28a has both positive and negative roles in the regulation of miRNA production and has a dual role in triggering pre-miRNA degradation.

Cannabinoids (CBs) are compounds that activate the CB1 and CB2 receptors. CB receptors mediate many different physiological functions, and cannabinoids have been reported to decrease tumor cell viability, proliferation, migration, as well as to modulate metastasis. In this thesis, the effects of cannabinoids on human colorectal carcinoma Caco-2 cells (Paper I) and mouse P19 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells (Paper III) were studied.  In both cell lines, the compounds examined produced a concentration- and time-dependent decrease in cell viability. In Caco-2-cells, HU 210 and the pyrimidine antagonist 5-fluorouracil produced synergistic effects upon cell viability. The mechanisms behind the cytocidal effects of cannabinoids appear to be mediated by other than solely the CB receptor, and a common mechanism in Caco-2 and P19 EC cells was oxidative stress. However, in P19 EC cells the CB receptors contribute to the cytocidal effects possibly via ceramide production. In paper II, the association between CB1 receptor immunoreactivity (CB1IR) and different histopathological variables and disease-specific survival of colorectal cancer (CRC) was investigated. In microsatellite stable (MSS) cases there was a significant positive association of the tumor grade with the CB1IR intensity. A high CB1IR is indicative of a poorer prognosis in MSS with stage II CRC patients. Paper IV focused on the cytotoxic effects of cannabinoids during neuronal differentiation. HU 210 affected the cell viability, neurite formation and produced a decreased intracellular AChE activity. The effects of cannabinoids on embryonic development and survival were examined in Paper V, by repeated injection of cannabinoids in fertilized chicken eggs. After 10 days of incubation, HU 210 and cannabidiol (without CB receptor affinity), decreased the viability of chick embryos, in a manner that could be blocked by α-tocopherol (antioxidant) and attenuated by AM251 (CB1 receptor antagonist). In conclusion, based on these studies, the cannabinoid system may provide a new target for the development of drugs to treat cancer such as CRC. However, the CBs also produce seemingly unspecific cytotoxic effects, and may have negative effects on the neuronal differentiation process. This may be responsible for, at least some of, the embryotoxic effects found in ovo, but also for the cognitive and neurotoxic effects of cannabinoids in the developing and adult nervous system.

Discovery of the ability of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to differentiate into cells of non-mesodermal tissues, particularly neuronal cells, have raised the possibility of utilising MSCs in regenerative/reparative therapies for neurological disorders. However, a number of hurdles remain to be resolved. This thesis aims to address some of these issues by investigating the characteristics of bone marrow-derived human MSCs (hMSCs) during long-term culture, the potential of hMSCs to differentiate in vitro toward the neuronal lineage under the influence of cytokines, and the effects of intracerebral transplantation in the hemiparkinsonian rat model. During expansion culture hMSCs were found to display the expected characteristics of MSC populations, and also constitutively expressed neural and pluripotency markers simultaneously with mesodermal markers. Analysis of hMSC long-term subcultivation revealed an optimal period for commencing neuronal differentiation (first 6-8 passages), and also showed the absence of spontaneous neural differentiation. Application of neural-inducing cytokines and culture conditions resulted in the generation of an immature neuronal-like phenotype by hMSCs. Through live cell microscopy it was demonstrated for the first time that cytokine-based hMSC neuronal differentiation occurs through active and dynamic cellular processes involving outgrowth and motility of cellular extensions. In addition, single- and multiple-stage cytokine-based strategies for inducing dopaminergic neuronal-like cells from hMSCs were investigated. These studies revealed that FGF-2 and EGF exerted the greatest benefits for hMSC neuronal differentiation. Undifferentiated and neuronal-primed hMSCs were transplanted intracerebrally into the striatum and substantia nigra of cyclosporine-treated hemiparkinsonian rats. Grafted hMSCs could be clearly identified at 1-day and 7-days post-transplantation; however, grafts were gradually lost over time, with complete absence by 21-days. Co-transplantation with olfactory ensheathing cells, neuronal-priming prior to grafting, and nigral as well as striatal grafting could not provide engraftment and differentiation advantages. Immunohistological analysis demonstrated the presence of innate inflammatory responses (microglia and astrocyte activation) at graft sites, fibronectin deposition by hMSCs, and lack of endogenous host neurogenesis. The results of my PhD work indicate that cytokine-based culture methods are capable of differentiating hMSCs to an immature neuronal-like phenotype, and host-mediated innate inflammatory responses may be a key contributing factor for the failure of in vivo hMSC engraftment.

Discovery of the ability of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to differentiate into cells of non-mesodermal tissues, particularly neuronal cells, have raised the possibility of utilising MSCs in regenerative/reparative therapies for neurological disorders. However, a number of hurdles remain to be resolved. This thesis aims to address some of these issues by investigating the characteristics of bone marrow-derived human MSCs (hMSCs) during long-term culture, the potential of hMSCs to differentiate in vitro toward the neuronal lineage under the influence of cytokines, and the effects of intracerebral transplantation in the hemiparkinsonian rat model. During expansion culture hMSCs were found to display the expected characteristics of MSC populations, and also constitutively expressed neural and pluripotency markers simultaneously with mesodermal markers. Analysis of hMSC long-term subcultivation revealed an optimal period for commencing neuronal differentiation (first 6-8 passages), and also showed the absence of spontaneous neural differentiation. Application of neural-inducing cytokines and culture conditions resulted in the generation of an immature neuronal-like phenotype by hMSCs. Through live cell microscopy it was demonstrated for the first time that cytokine-based hMSC neuronal differentiation occurs through active and dynamic cellular processes involving outgrowth and motility of cellular extensions. In addition, single- and multiple-stage cytokine-based strategies for inducing dopaminergic neuronal-like cells from hMSCs were investigated. These studies revealed that FGF-2 and EGF exerted the greatest benefits for hMSC neuronal differentiation. Undifferentiated and neuronal-primed hMSCs were transplanted intracerebrally into the striatum and substantia nigra of cyclosporine-treated hemiparkinsonian rats. Grafted hMSCs could be clearly identified at 1-day and 7-days post-transplantation; however, grafts were gradually lost over time, with complete absence by 21-days. Co-transplantation with olfactory ensheathing cells, neuronal-priming prior to grafting, and nigral as well as striatal grafting could not provide engraftment and differentiation advantages. Immunohistological analysis demonstrated the presence of innate inflammatory responses (microglia and astrocyte activation) at graft sites, fibronectin deposition by hMSCs, and lack of endogenous host neurogenesis. The results of my PhD work indicate that cytokine-based culture methods are capable of differentiating hMSCs to an immature neuronal-like phenotype, and host-mediated innate inflammatory responses may be a key contributing factor for the failure of in vivo hMSC engraftment.

Lactate has been long thought of as a dead-end waste product of glycolysis. In the brain, recent evidence has revealed a key role of L-lactate creating a paradigm-shift in our understanding of the neuronal energy metabolism. The Astrocyte neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS) model, has shown L-Lactate as the main energy substrate delivered by astrocytes to neurons to sustain neuronal oxidative metabolism. This metabolic coupling is an essential mechanism for long-term memory formation. Experimental evidence indicates that the role of lactate in cognitive function is not limited to being a neuronal metabolic substrate, but rather it is also an important signaling molecule for synaptic plasticity. One of the new emerging roles of lactate is its effect on gene expression levels; however, our current understanding of the mechanism of lactate effect on gene expression is rudimentary. Here, I investigate the role of lactate as an epigenetic modulator in neuronal cultures. First, I explored the effect of lactate on the transcriptome and methylome of the neuronal cells using primary neuronal cell culture models. Our results reveal a significant role for lactate in inducing neuronal cell differentiation. Following, I characterized a neuroblastoma cell line as our neuronal differentiation cell model and assessed its metabolic features relative to other immortal cell lines. Further, using the cell line in vitro model, I looked into the metabolic reprograming that occurs in parallel with the first indications of differentiation, focusing on lactate production rates. Subsequently, I investigated the role of lactate in differentiation through transcriptomic analysis. We show that lactate induced histone acetylation and promoted expression of dopaminergic markers, with a stronger effect of D-lactate over L-lactate. Further studies to establish potential linkages between those two pathways will enhance our understanding of the effect of lactate.

Sexual dimorphism has been long noted in human neurobiology, apparent most notably in sex-biased distribution of multiple neurological disorders or diseases, from autism spectrum disorder to Parkinson's disease. With the advances in molecular biology, genetics and epigenetics have come into focus as key players in sexually dimorphic neural development; and yet, many studies in the field of neuroscience overlook the importance of sex for the human brain. For this project, human embryonic and neural stem cells were chosen for three main reasons. Firstly, they provide an easily obtainable, scalable and physiologically native model for the early stages of development. Secondly, neural stem cells populations are retained within the adult human brain, and are implicated to play a role in cognition and mental illness, and as such are of interest in themselves. Thirdly, stem cell lines are widely used in research, including clinical trials of transplantation treatments, and for this reason should be meticulously examined and characterized. Here, the morphology, behaviour, and expression of selected genes in four stem cell lines, two of female and two of male origin, was examined in side-by-side comparisons prior to and during neuronal differentiation using a variety of methods including light microscopy, time-lapse two-photon microscopy, quantitative real-time PCR and immunocytochemistry. The obtained results have shown previously uncharacterised differences between those cell lines, such as a higher rate of proliferation but a slower rate of neuronal differentiation in male cell cultures compared to female cells cultivated in the same conditions, and a sex-biased expression of several markers of neuronal maturation at late stages of differentiation, as well as diverse patterns of expression of X- and Y-linked genes involved in stem cell proliferation and neural development.

Les cellules souches embryonnaires (ES) murines peuvent être différenciées in vitro en une population homogène de neurones glutamatergiques semblables aux neurones présents dans le cortex in vivo, suite à un traitement par l’acide rétinoïque (AR). Bien que le rôle de l’AR soit bien étudié, les facteurs qui spécifient le destin neuronal ne sont pas connus. Nous montrons ici que Pou3f2 (Brn2) est un facteur essentiel à la différenciation neuronale des cellules ES in vitro. L’utilisation de l’approche de différenciation in vitro associée à des techniques de génomique à haut débit (RNA-seq, ChIP-seq) a permis d’identifier des gènes régulés directement ou indirectement par Brn2. Parmi ces gènes se trouvent Ascl1, Hes5 ou Pou6f1, qui sont des gènes clés dans la neurogenèse. La comparaison de nos données avec des expériences précédemment publiées nous a permis d’identifier un nombre restreint de gènes cibles de Brn2 quelque soit le protocole de différenciation utilisé. Parmi ces gènes se trouve Zic1. Nous montrons que Zic1 coopère avec Brn2 pour spécifier le destin neuronal des cellules ES in vitro. / Mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells can be differentiated in vitro into a highly homogenous population of glutamatergic neurons, similar to those present in the cerebellar cortex by treatment with retinoic acid (RA). While the role of RA in differentiation is well studied, the downstream factors that specify the neural fate of the ES cells are not known. Here we show that Pou3f2 (Brn2), with a known role in neuronal differentiation in vivo, is essential for neuronal differentiation of ES cells in vitro. Using our in vitro differentiation protocol combined with high throughput techniques (RNA-seq, ChIP-seq) we show that Brn2 directly and indirectly regulates a set of target genes with essential roles in neurogenesis such as Ascl1, Hes5 or Pou6f1. Integration of these results with previously published datasets allowed us to identify a core set of Brn2 target genes common to each differentiation model. Amongst these is transcription factor Zic1. We show that Zic1 and Brn2 cooperate to specify the neural fate of RA-treated ES cells in vitro.

Submitted by Angela Maria de Oliveira (amolivei@uepg.br) on 2019-02-06T18:43:55Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Rubens Gomes Junior.pdf: 1292894 bytes, checksum: a7cb84fdd6de57c93b761eeb2199e77d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2019-02-06T18:43:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Rubens Gomes Junior.pdf: 1292894 bytes, checksum: a7cb84fdd6de57c93b761eeb2199e77d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-10-18 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease (ADAM) é uma família de proteínas transmembranas capaz de mediar adesão celular, assim como clivagem de moléculas da superfície celular. ADAM23 é um membro desta família predominantemente expressa no sistema nervoso durante o desenvolvimento até a fase adulta. Camundongos nocautes para o gene adam23 desenvolvem problemas neurológicos como tremor e ataxia e morrem logo após o nascimento, sugerindo que esta proteína possui papel fundamental no desenvolvimento e manutenção do sistema nervoso. Sendo assim, a análise do padrão de expressão da proteína ADAM23 no processo de diferenciação pode contribuir no entendimento do seu papel biológico no contexto do desenvolvimento do sistema nervoso. Primeiramente foi avaliado se as linhagens celulares de neuroblastoma (SHSY-5Y e Neuro2a), feocromocitoma (PC-12) e glioblastoma (T98G) expressavam ADAM23. Em todas as linhagens foi possível observar a proteína ADAM23. Para avaliar se a expressão de ADAM23 era alterada em eventos de diferenciação, as linhagens celulares de neuroblastoma e feocromocitoma foram usadas como modelos de diferenciação neuronal. Em PC-12 não houve alteração na expressão de ADAM23 quando as células foram tratadas com fator neurotrófico derivado de encéfalo. A linhagem celular de neuroblastoma humano, SHSY-5Y, também não apresentou alteração na expressão da proteína de interesse quando tratada com all-trans ácido retinóico. Os ensaios utilizando o neuroblastoma murino, Neuro2a, não mostraram alteração na expressão de ADAM23 nos grupos tratados com all-trans ácido retinóico ou all-trans retinal. Entretanto, nesta linhagem houve aumento da forma não processada de ADAM23 (100 kDa) nos grupos em que o soro fetal bovino foi reduzido a 1%, independente do tratamento ácido retinóico e do retinal. Ainda foi investigado um possível papel protetor de ADAM23 frente ao estresse oxidativo causado por peroxido de hidrogênio em diferentes concentrações e tempos em Neuro2a, mas nenhuma alteração na expressão foi observada. Estes dados sugerem que ADAM23 pode estar envolvida no processo de diferenciação neuronal em Neuro2a desencadeado pela redução do soro fetal bovino, entretanto mais estudos são necessários para elucidar este mecanismo. / A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease (ADAM) is a family of transmembrane proteins able to mediate cell adhesion, as well as cleavage of cell surface molecules. ADAM23 is a member of this family predominantly expressed in nervous system during development until adulthood. Mice knockouts for adam23 gene develop neurological problems, such as tremor and ataxia and die soon after birth, suggesting that protein plays a key role in development and maintenance of nervous system. Therefore, evaluation of expression profile of ADAM23 protein in the differentiation process may contribute to understanding of its biological role in context of the development of nervous system. First, it was evaluated whether cell lines of neuroblastoma (SHSY-5Y and Neuro2a), pheochromocytoma (PC-12) and glioblastoma (T98G) expressed ADAM23. In all lineages it was possible to observe the ADAM23 protein. To assess whether ADAM23 expression was altered in differentiation events, neuroblastoma and pheochromocytoma cell lines were used as models of neuronal differentiation. PC-12 cells showed no change in ADAM23 expression when they were treated with brain-derived neurotrophic factor. The human neuroblastoma cell line, SHSY-5Y, also showed no change in the expression of the protein of interest when they were treated with all-trans retinoic acid. Assays using murine neuroblastoma, Neuro2a, showed no change in ADAM23 expression on groups treated with all-trans retinoic acid or all-trans retinal. However, in this lineage presented an increase of the unprocessed form of ADAM23 (100 kDa) on group, which the fetal bovine serum was reduced to 1%, independent of retinoic acid or retinal treatment. A possible protective role of ADAM23 against oxidative stress caused by hydrogen peroxide at different concentrations and times in Neuro2a was still investigated, but no change in expression was observed. These data suggest that ADAM23 may be involved in the neuronal differentiation process in Neuro2a triggered by the reduction of fetal bovine serum, however more studies are needed to elucidate this mechanism.

<p>The proline-rich tyrosine kinase (Pyk2) together with focal adhesion kinase (FAK) define a family of non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases that are regulated by diverse stimuli. Activation of Pyk2 has been implicated in multiple signaling events, including modulation of ion channels, activation of MAP kinase cascades and apoptotic cell death. This thesis investigates the role of Pyk2 in the regulation of mitogenic signals and cell cytoskeleton.</p><p>We identified a hematopoietic isoform of Pyk2 (designated Pyk2-H)that is generated by alternative RNA splicing and is mainly expressed in thymocytes, B cells and natural killer cells. In addition, we demonstrated that engagement of antigen receptors in lymphocytes leads to rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of Pyk2-H suggesting a potential role in host immune responses. These findings were corroborated by defects in B cell-mediated immune responses of Pyk2-/- mice. </p><p>Several reports have previously indicated that Pyk2 acts as an upstream regulator of ERK and JNK MAP kinase cascades in response to numerous extracellular signals. Which MAP kinase pathway is activated by Pyk2 depends on arrays of effector proteins associated with Pyk2. We proposed a model where the formation of Pyk2-Src complexes results in phosphorylation of Shc, p130Cas and Pyk2. This creates binding sites for the SH2 domains of adaptor proteins Grb2 and Crk, which in turn recruit exchange factors for Ras and Rho GTPases that specifically activate ERK or JNK.</p><p>Integration of signaling pathways initiated by receptor tyrosine kinases and integrins is essential for growth factor-mediated biological responses. We described neuronal cellular models where activation of both growth factor receptors and integrins is required for neurite outgrowth. In these cells, Pyk2 and FAK associate with integrin-linked complexes containing EGF receptors via their C- and N-terminal domains. Inhibition of Pyk2/FAK functions was sufficient to block neurite outgrowth and effectors of the C-terminal domain of Pyk2/FAK, including paxillin, were shown to regulate neurite outgrowth independently of ERK/MAP kinase in these cells. We thus proposed that Pyk2 and FAK play important roles in signal integration proximal to the integrin-growth factor receptor complexes.</p>

The proline-rich tyrosine kinase (Pyk2) together with focal adhesion kinase (FAK) define a family of non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases that are regulated by diverse stimuli. Activation of Pyk2 has been implicated in multiple signaling events, including modulation of ion channels, activation of MAP kinase cascades and apoptotic cell death. This thesis investigates the role of Pyk2 in the regulation of mitogenic signals and cell cytoskeleton. We identified a hematopoietic isoform of Pyk2 (designated Pyk2-H)that is generated by alternative RNA splicing and is mainly expressed in thymocytes, B cells and natural killer cells. In addition, we demonstrated that engagement of antigen receptors in lymphocytes leads to rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of Pyk2-H suggesting a potential role in host immune responses. These findings were corroborated by defects in B cell-mediated immune responses of Pyk2-/- mice. Several reports have previously indicated that Pyk2 acts as an upstream regulator of ERK and JNK MAP kinase cascades in response to numerous extracellular signals. Which MAP kinase pathway is activated by Pyk2 depends on arrays of effector proteins associated with Pyk2. We proposed a model where the formation of Pyk2-Src complexes results in phosphorylation of Shc, p130Cas and Pyk2. This creates binding sites for the SH2 domains of adaptor proteins Grb2 and Crk, which in turn recruit exchange factors for Ras and Rho GTPases that specifically activate ERK or JNK. Integration of signaling pathways initiated by receptor tyrosine kinases and integrins is essential for growth factor-mediated biological responses. We described neuronal cellular models where activation of both growth factor receptors and integrins is required for neurite outgrowth. In these cells, Pyk2 and FAK associate with integrin-linked complexes containing EGF receptors via their C- and N-terminal domains. Inhibition of Pyk2/FAK functions was sufficient to block neurite outgrowth and effectors of the C-terminal domain of Pyk2/FAK, including paxillin, were shown to regulate neurite outgrowth independently of ERK/MAP kinase in these cells. We thus proposed that Pyk2 and FAK play important roles in signal integration proximal to the integrin-growth factor receptor complexes.