Physiotherapists in New Zealand are increasingly learning and practicing Western acupuncture. Western acupuncture as a new and different tool is enhancing and yet challenging physiotherapists practice. This study explores the meaning behind Western acupuncture practice to further understand the implications of its development and possible future direction.Hermeneutic methodology was used because it facilitates the exploration between that which is familiar and that which is unfamiliar. Seven New Zealand physiotherapists qualified to practise Western acupuncture were interviewed about their practice experiences. The data in relation to the phenomenon of inquiry was analysed thematically.The findings revealed a complex array of tensions within physiotherapy because of the differences Western acupuncture brings to physiotherapists' practice. Western acupuncture is a new and useful tool in the physiotherapists 'toolbox'. It is congruent with other physiotherapy practices in that it shares the same scientific neurophysiological foundation. However, the association of Western acupuncture with traditional Chinese acupuncture causes it to be viewed as a complementary medical practice and thus, not completely legitimate as a part of physiotherapy. These tensions are further confounded because the technical rationalist paradigm, upon which physiotherapy is based, values evidence-based practices. The best evidence is perceived to be that gained from the randomised controlled trial. I argue that the randomised controlled trial is poorly suited to the evaluation of complex practices such as Western acupuncture. Such insights also challenge physiotherapy, as a whole, because the available 'evidence' does not acknowledge the complexities of practice involving individual practitioners, their colleagues, the profession, other healthcare professions, patients and the public.The tensions encountered in physiotherapy and Western acupuncture practice have led to a number of recommendations in education, practice, research and legislation. Overall, they suggest a need to develop a more inclusive model of practice development. Western acupuncture is a potentially valuable tool. In order to maximise use of this tool physiotherapy practice understandings need to be extended. This in turn, will assist development of the profession as a whole.

A key midwifery activity is the support of a woman in labour. Pain in labour has been extensively researched from the woman's perspective, but less has been explored in relation to the midwife and her approach to pain. The way in which the midwife works with a woman and her pain in labour is the focus of this qualitative study, using Heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenology. This philosophical approach seeks to uncover or illuminate aspects of the midwife's practice which are frequently taken for granted in their everydayness. Seven midwives, including both independent practitioners and hospital-employed, were interviewed. Their narratives were analysed to uncover the meaning of the way in which midwives work with women and their pain in labour. The findings of this thesis suggest that midwives work by interpreting the woman's pain. Before the pain begins, they 'leap ahead' to help them anticipate the pain and how they will confront it. During labour, midwives give pain meaning by translating its purpose in that context. They 'leap in' when required, sometimes using 'self as an intervention. Midwives interpret women's pain through their understanding of lived time. They know how the perception of time passing changes depending on the setting for labour or the amount of anxiety and pain the woman is experiencing. Midwives use time in their work. They break it down to help a woman focus on a single contraction rather than looking too far ahead toward the unknown. Time can be a midwife's friend when the arrival of the baby replaces the urgent need for pain relief. It can also be her enemy if her interpretation of a woman's pain differs from the woman's perception. The memory of pain may persist for the woman, after labour has finished, with a backlash for the midwife. Some midwives believe in the process of birth and the woman's ability to labour with such conviction that they gain a woman's complete trust. At her most vulnerable time, they encourage the woman to call upon inner reserves and be truly empowered by her experience.

This thesis examines the similarities and differences between northern and southern Chinese markets (in this case, the Beijing and Guangdong markets) in relation to New Zealand's destination image, from both visitors' and tour guides' perspectives. Destination image issues focused on information source and cultural factors, as well as their interrelationships. The purpose of this research is to achieve a better understanding of the Chinese outbound market as well as the heterogeneous market characteristics in order to provide insight for the New Zealand tourism industry. This research involves both interviews with visitors and tour guides based on a grounded theory methodology. Analysis of the interviews was based on two research themes: factors influence New Zealand's destination image at different stages, as well as the Chinese regional market difference in relation to destination image. Interviews were also focused on two stages of destination image formation: pre-visit images and in-destination images. Difference between Beijing and Guangdong markets on the research themes during the different stages were explored and analyzed. Research findings showed that destination image is influenced by both the information source and the cultural factors for Chinese tourists. Moreover, regional difference existed in China in particular their perceptions about New Zealand, preferences and personal values. Most tourists consider pre-visit image is essential; however, New Zealand's image in China was not very impressive and effective. Before visitation, New Zealand's destination image is influenced heavily by information available in China. The way tourists search for information and the image they were attracted for coming to New Zealand between Beijing and Guangdong were different. During-visit impressions of New Zealand were considered by majority of the tourists to be better than their expectations. However, due to their different cultural backgrounds, Beijing and Guangdong tourists have different reactions to New Zealand's products, which can be reflected through different shopping behaviours, and different demands and satisfaction levels. Overall, segmenting the Chinese outbound market into regions is recommended for future marketing, in order to attract more visitors by providing more suitable products.

As a resource based economy international engagement plays a critical role for the growth and development of New Zealand. One of the most notable trends over the past 15 years has been the rise of some of the largest markets around the world, that have led to a rapid and substantial increase in international trade and investment flows. The liberalisation and consequently the rise of emerging markets has today changed the economic geography for the business world, with companies entering these markets with the hope of getting superior returns arising from rapid economic growth and related market opportunities. Amongst other emerging markets, the economic resurgence of the Indian market in the recent years has been widely noticed and in many senses has influenced and changed the structure and operations of businesses around the world. The prospects offered by India have allowed firms to substantially expand their activities beyond their domestic borders and access new growth opportunities generating significant productive growth. The benefits that markets like India today generate are likely to be particularly significance for New Zealand, given the small size of the domestic market. Indeed, increasing New Zealand’s exporting and international investing activity is vital to raising New Zealand’s growth rate. The rapid rise and deregulation of the Indian market has seen a rise in the number of New Zealand businesses keen to tap into the vast prospects across different sectors over the recent years. Nevertheless, New Zealand businesses have not been participating to nearly the same extent as most businesses from other small developed countries currently operating in the Indian market. Reasons for this limited interaction are unclear and not well documented in the current literature that examines the economic activities amongst the two markets. Given the importance of international engagement New Zealand businesses cannot afford to isolate themselves from the opportunities provided by the Indian market. Considering this, the main aim of this research is to focus on the opportunities that India provides and the benefits that New Zealand businesses stand to gain from those. On identifying, this may help devise actions that might lead to substantially increased levels of international investments by New Zealand firms, given the challenges of entering the Indian base from a small remote country. Drawing on insights gained from existing literature and case studies of companies operating in India, the research will identify appropriate strategies and policies that might help New Zealand businesses to succeed and better direct operations in India.

This thesis is about factors which aid and hinder successful completions for New Zealand-born Samoans. The thesis explores the proposition that educational marginalisation of minority students will be perpetuated until AUT adopts policies and procedures which enable culturally responsive educational pedagogies and practices which honour indigenous minorities. The thesis asked New Zealand-born Samoan students, what is the nature of their aiga (family) and cultural support frameworks (structures), and, further, to what extent and how and why do these students engage with such networks (processes)? This study used a qualitative approach within which six New Zealand-born Samoan students were interviewed using a semi-structured approach to gathering data. The interview data were transcribed and a thematic analysis was manually completed both within and across the six cases. The turnaround time in gaining ethics approval impacted upon the capacity of the investigator to conduct this research in what she considered to be a culturally appropriate manner and the cautious vigilance of the final ethics committee approval was perceived as a barrier to making culturally appropriate contact. It was discovered that Samoan structures, especially family, are paramount in supporting educational success because of the Fa’a Samoa processes which they engender. A further discovery was that New Zealand-born Samoans retain cultural affiliations so their lifestyle shows deep regard for Fa’a Samoa identity. Through these affiliations, meaningful life metaphors become applied. It was concluded that transforming staff so that they understand Pasifika peoples is crucial to growing Pasifika educational success. Staff development must, therefore, be planned so that meaningful understandings of Pasifika concepts and frameworks become nurtured and that is a challenge which AUT must embrace and action.

The Greenshell™ mussel (GSM), Perna canaliculus, industry in New Zealand (NZ) is the largest aquaculture sector in the country. In 2006, the export earnings were valued at US$145 million which represented 65% of NZ aquaculture earnings. Historically, and at present, GSM production involves the capture of wild mussels on ropes followed by on-growing of these animals to market size (approximately 14 months). However, hatchery production of GSM has been developed in recent years. Hatchery production will alleviate the seasonal uncertainties of current techniques and allow the benefits of selective breeding programs. To date, efforts to produce commercial quantities of GSM in hatcheries have been hampered by unreliable larval rearing. These problems were often alleviated by antibiotic use, which implied bacterial pathogens as the cause. Yet, the ongoing use of antibiotics is not sustainable because of increasing legislative restrictions on their use and the possible emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Hence, the identification and use of novel probiotics was investigated as an alternative. Because of a lack of previous work, it was necessary to investigate the bacterial pathogenesis of GSM larvae in the initial stages and, hence, to determine the cause of disease against which the probiotics would be active. Twenty-two bacterial strains, isolated from compromised larvae, were screened for larval toxicity using a larval bioassay. Two strains were identified as potential pathogens. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene identified Vibrio splendidus and Vibrio sp. DO1, a Vibrio coralliilyticus/neptunius-like isolate, as pathogens of GSM larvae. These strains had the- ability to cause 83 and 75% GSM larval mortality in vitro respectively, at a concentration 102 CFU ml-1. Histopathology indicated the route of infection was via the digestive system. Using healthy larvae as target hosts, Koch's postulates were confirmed for the two isolates. Although two bacterial pathogens were identified, the successful design and implementation of protective measures in the hatchery still required an understanding of the dynamics of the infection process. Developing an in situ experimental model for infection was therefore paramount. The minimum effective pathogenic dose (MEPD) of V. splendidus (105 CFU ml-1) and Vibrio sp. DO1 (106 CFU ml-1) was demonstrated for GSM larvae during hatchery production. In a flow-through water hatchery system, larvae given 1-2 hours of static water exposure with these pathogen doses, after which flowthrough processes resumed, averaged 58% and 69% cumulative mortality, respectively, on the fourth day following pathogen exposure. Larvae exposed to a dosage one order of magnitude greater than the MEPD, had higher mortalities of 73% and 96% for V. splendidus and Vibrio sp. DO1 respectively. These four levels of mortality were significantly greater than those of the non-exposed control larvae, averaging 23% in the experiments involving V. splendidus and 35% with Vibrio sp. DO1. Experiments were repeated four times to establish reproducibility. The infection models were reproducible and provided a tool to assess measures for the protection of GSM larvae against infection in the hatchery environment. A bioassay was developed to screen and select bacterial strains as potential probiotics for GSM larvae. Sixty-nine isolates originating from a GSM hatchery environment were tested for probiotic activity in larval pathogen-challenge bioassays conducted in tissue culture dishes (TCDs). Vibrio sp. DO1 and V. splendidus were the tested pathogens. Forty of the tested isolates afforded larval survival significantly greater than pathogen controls (p < 0.05). The bioassay technique achieved a 58% success rate in searching for putative probiotics and highlighted the benefit of including the host animal in the first stage of the screening procedure. The time of inoculation of putative probiotic strains prior to pathogen challenge influenced the outcome of the assay. A pre-exposure period of 20 hours revealed a greater number of potential probiotics than a two-hour pre-exposure period. Pilot challenge tests, under normal hatchery conditions, confirmed the usefulness of the TCD screening method in recognising effective probiotics. Following hatchery pilot trials, two probiotic strains were chosen for further study, namely strains 0444 and 0536. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and phylogenetic analysis identified the strains as Alteromonas macleodii 0444 and Neptunomonas sp. 0536. Both probiotics were evaluated separately in a GSM hatchery facility during routine larval rearing and when the larvae were challenged with a high and low pathogenic dose of Vibrio sp. DO1 and V. splendidus. In all experiments, probiotic application significantly improved larval survival, if administered prior to pathogen exposure. Across all experiments, larvae that were exposed to the high and low dosages of pathogens averaged 14% and 36% survival respectively on the fourth day following pathogen exposure. If the probiotics were administered prior to pathogen challenge, larval survival averaged 50% and 66% respectively. Non-inoculated control larvae and larvae administered the probiotic alone demonstrated 67% and 79% survival respectively. In a repeat experiment, these benefits were reproduced, with the exception of A. macleodii 0444 trialled against V. splendidus. Neptunomonas sp. 0536 appeared to suppress naturally occurring vibrios in the culture environment of healthy GSM larvae. This was the first time A. macleodii and Neptunomonas sp. were demonstrated as probiotic bacteria. Many studies document probiotic application in aquaculture under conditions of pathogen attack, yet few describe the use of probiotics during routine production. The effects of administering the probiotic, A. macleodii 0444, during routine GSM larvae production, were compared against larvae from the same cohort that were not treated with the probiotic. The probiotic was administered daily for the first 11 days of the larval period and was provided at two concentrations, 107 CFU ml-1 and 108 CFU ml-1. Measures of larval swimming activity, gut colouration, lipid levels, larval survival, larval size and settlement success were recorded. There were minimal differences in all parameters between larvae provided the probiotic and control larvae. Probiotic treated larvae consumed more food and had higher lipid levels at the end of the larval period, but these were not statistically significant. All treatments completed the larval phase and settled successfully after metamorphosis. Survival at the end of the larval period was 37.2%, 38.8%, and 34.8% for control, 107 CFU ml-1 and 108 CFU ml-1 treatments respectively. The probiotic was still detected in larvae seven days after the final addition to the tanks. Animals were further grown in the field at a commercial farm. The probiotic was not detected in mussels at four months after leaving the hatchery. Combination use of the two probiotics, A. macleodii 0444 and Neptunomonas sp. 0536, was investigated to determine whether additive protection against pathogen attack with Vibrio sp. DO1 and V. splendidus was afforded to GSM larvae. The effects of combination administration were compared with larvae administered each probiotic as single strains and non-inoculated larvae. Additionally, two concentrations were tested for each probiotic, both singly and in combination, 107 and 108 CFU ml-1. Larvae were administered probiotics daily for the first six days, challenged with pathogens on the third day and then reared until settlement (day 19). Although protection against pathogen attack was observed in combination treatments, when compared with single-strain administration, additive protection was not apparent. Administration of 108 CFU ml-1 levels of probiotics, both singly and in combination, afforded larval survival slightly better than 107 CFU ml-1 levels, although this was rarely statistically significant. On the other hand, the higher levels of probiotic led to smaller larvae and lower feed rates for the majority of the 19-day trial. At the end of the study, larval sizes were smaller in the treatment applied a combination of probiotics at 108 CFU ml-1 than those of the other treatments. Additionally, towards the end of the larval period, feed consumption in the combination 108 CFU ml-1 treatment was similar to that witnessed in the other probiotic treatments one day previously. This suggested that either the larvae were compromised or they were growing slower. Despite a lack of additive protection against a single strain pathogen attack being demonstrated, the potential benefit of multi-strain probiotics, as prophylactic measures against every-day microbial encounters in larviculture, would remain. Although 108 CFU ml-1 levels appeared to protect against pathogen attack slightly better, they were also potentially detrimental to normal larval rearing when administered in combination. Following the successful completion of the larval period and pathogen protection afforded with a combination of probiotics at 107 CFU ml-1, this level was recommended as the best concentration of each probiotic where combination administration would be applied. The work presented in this thesis supports the use of A. macleodii 0444 and Neptunomonas sp. 0536 in the routine rearing of GSM larvae. The ability to produce settled juvenile mussels, equal in numbers to those produced in normal healthy conditions, plus the benefits against pathogen attack led to the recommendation of their use on a routine prophylactic basis in GSM larval rearing. Their use for this purpose is intended in the near future. A provisional patent has been prepared and will be submitted shortly. It is anticipated that future work will continue with these probiotic strains to determine their potential benefit for other aquaculture species.

The main objective of this thesis is to make a contribution to the controversial subject of how the German youth justice system could be reformed. In this context, this thesis aims to discover innovative strategies that might be implemented into German youth justice law. As New Zealand's juvenile justice system, which was established under the Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989, has become the centre of extensive international attention and has already been adopted and adapted by other jurisdictions, this thesis focuses on the question whether parts of New Zealand's legislation could be transplanted into German youth justice law. For these purposes, the method of Comparative Law is employed. Accordingly, New Zealand's and Germany's social, legal, historical and cultural background are briefly outlined and compared. This comparison reveals that an implementation of concepts of New Zealand law into German law would generally be possible. The historical development of distinct youth justice systems in both countries are presented and differences and similarities are compiled. Both countries' current youth justice legislations are then critically examined. This thesis further provides an evaluation of the practical effectiveness of New Zealand's youth justice system. In this regard, this research is exploratory and qualitative, drawing on semi-structured interviews with 10 practitioners working in the field of youth justice. The comparative and qualitative research identified many strengths as well as some weaknesses of the current youth justice system in New Zealand. Consequently, this thesis comes to the conclusion that an implementation of a youth justice forum comparable to New Zealand's Family Group Conference would be expedient and worthwhile from Germany's perspective, but that some aspects of the New Zealand system like police diversion and the formal court orders, cannot or should not be introduced in Germany. Regarding the latter topic, the comparison of both systems revealed that New Zealand might even be inspired by the German option of imposing youth prison sentences on recidivist offenders.

The diversity of New Zealand and Australian asellote isopods remains largely unknown. Even less is known about how this fauna is related to the rest of the world. This study focuses on the munnopsid subfamily Ilyarachninae Hansen, 1916, to explore the phylogenetic and biogeographic relationships of the local fauna to others from this group worldwide. To analyse the relationships within the Ilyarachninae, a suitable outgroup, in this case, the sister group, was needed to be determined. To do this, a cladistic analysis of the Munnopsidae was undertaken. In addition to determining a suitable outgroup, the family level analysis also served to test the monphyly of the nine subfamilies and to resolve the placement of the three genera, Munneurycope Stephensen, 1913, Munnicope Menzies and George, 1972 and Munnopsurus Richardson, 1912b which were not placed in any exsiting subfamily. The cladistic analysis of the Munnopsidae included 72 species representing all munnopsid genera, including where possible, the type species and was based on 122 morphological characters. A well resolved strict consensus tree was found. The results show Munnopsurus to be the sister group of the Ilyarachninae and the Munnopsinae to be the most ancestral group of the Munnopsidae. Of all the subfamilies, the Betamorphinae is not a monophyletic. The results show that although some subfamily names are upheld, others show no congruence to the topology of the results, and therefore the use of subfamily names are abandoned. Four families are instead recognized, the Munnopsidae (restricted to the former Munnopsinae), Acanthocopidae Wolff, 1962, the Syneurycopidae Wolff, 1962 and the Lipomeridae Tattersall, 1905a, with the latter including the former Ilyarachninae ('Ilyarachna-group'). Within the Ilyarachna-group, two new genera and 28 species were described, including 25 species new to science. Two genera, Notopais and Epikopais n. gen. are found exclusively in the southern hemisphere. Of the more cosmopolitan genera, some New Zealand and south-east Australian species display close affinities to each other and with Antarctic species. These relationships were tested using cladistic phylogenetic methods, and in addition to this, the analysis also served to test the monophyly of the genera. The analysis used 59 species, representing all genera and 61 morphological characters. The strict consensus tree was well resolved, however Aspidarachna Sars, 1897b, Ilyarachna Sars, 1870 and Echinozone Sars, 1897b were not monophyletic. The results also showed that the Ilyarachna-group fauna of New Zealand and south-east Australia are closely related to each other and to species from Antarctica.

Avalanches pose a significant natural hazard in many parts of the world. Worldwide the hazard is being managed in a number of new and traditional methods. In New Zealand, the Milford Road, Fiordland, has a significant avalanche problem which has been managed by the Transit New Zealand Milford Road Avalanche Programme since 1984. This avalanche programme has generated a database of all avalanche occurrences and associated meteorological parameters for the time period 1985 to 2002. Elsewhere around the world, similar and more extensive data sets have been used to examine a wide variety of aspects in relation to the snow cover, avalanching and avalanche hazard. The availability of the Milford Road database has provided the opportunity use new and traditional approaches to examine many aspects of avalanching including; the trends in and relationships with the snow and avalanche regime, evaluation of the avalanche hazard, statistical forecasting of avalanches and the visualisation of avalanche occurrence information in a GIS. Statistical and graphical examination of the inter-annual variation in the snow and avalanche regime revealed relationships between the snow depth, avalanche occurrences and atmospheric circulation similar to those found elsewhere around the world, but not previously examined in New Zealand. Furthermore, the analysis resulted in strong correlations despite using a database significantly shorter than those used elsewhere. Atmospheric circulation types that bring strong winds and precipitation were found to be highly significantly correlated with avalanche occurrences and snow depth. Avalanche occurrences were more highly correlated with atmospheric circulation than snow depth was, reflecting the strong maritime avalanche climate. Risk evaluation was undertaken using two approaches, the avalanche hazard index (AHI) and the probability of death to individuals (PDI) method. The present avalanche risk was compared to a theoretically uncontrolled avalanche regime, using 2002 traffic volumes for AHI and PDI. The AHI analysis highlighted the reduction in the AHI resulting from the control programme, and the significantly lower AHI when compared to Rogers Pass, B.C., Canada. The PDI analysis using equations modified to allow for a range of consequences indicated that the Milford Road is similar in risk to roads in Switzerland, but is far more accessible, with fewer closed days. A new equation for PDI, which accounted for waiting traffic was derived, and suggested that the calculated risk was high and unacceptable compared to standards applied to other hazards. Statistical forecasting using classification tree analysis has been successfully applied to avalanche forecasting in other climatic settings. This study has applied an extension to this technique through 10-fold cross validation to permit classification of an avalanche day in this direct action maritime climate. Using varying misclassification costs two classification trees were generated. The tree that used only wind speed and wind speed and precipitation combined in a temperature sensitive wind drift parameter obtained an overall accuracy of 78%, with correct prediction for an avalanche day at 86%. These predictor variables are considered to be the fundamental controls on avalanche forecasting in this climate, and coincide with important variables inferred from the atmospheric circulation analysis. Following the investigation of various methods for the creation of a high resolution digital elevation model (DEM), a GIS was used for the visualisation and examination of avalanche occurrences. Similar to other studies, qualitative and quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution in terms of aspect of avalanche occurrences was undertaken using the GIS. Colour coding of occurrences highlighted the influence of two storm directions, while an excess ratio showed the clear influence of aspect on avalanche occurrences in relation to two dominant storm directions, avalanche size and avalanche paths. Furthermore, the GIS has many applications for operational forecasting, teaching and the maintenance of institutional memory for the avalanche programme.

Hearing loss is a disability that affects thousands of people in the world. It is estimated that there is 400,000 people with hearing difficulties in New Zealand (New Zealand Audiological Society, 2007). People with hearing loss have the right to access to information and communication (United Nations Enable, 2003). Without access to information and communication, the hearing impaired may encounter problems with emotional and social functioning, and consequently suffer with decreased quality of life. Clinical experience and investigations have revealed success with assistive listening devices (ALDs) where use of hearing aids has been unsuccessful. ALDs are devices that improve the communication function for the hearing impaired. ALDs can be used with or without hearing aids to overcome the negative effects of poor room acoustics. Currently, in the literature, little is known about the use and maintenance of ALDs in community organizations. This study investigates the use and maintenance of ALDs in the Christchurch community of New Zealand. A list of community organizations that provide ALDs to the public of Christchurch was also made available to individuals who have hearing impairment. The study found there is a lack of ALDs within the Christchurch community. Also that current ALD technology within the Christchurch community is not necessarily compatible with current hearing aid technology and that most organizations rely too heavily on PA systems. PA systems do not necessarily meet the needs of the hearing impaired and an ALD specifically targeting their hearing loss would improve their speech perception. Community organizations are not advertising enough that they offer ALDs which adds to the lack of awareness in Christchurch. Results found that most ALDs in the Christchurch community are in working order, however, there is a need for organizations to be educated about their use and maintenance. Audiologists and other health professionals have a key role in providing appropriate recommendations in the use and benefits that ALDs have on speech perception. These will directly improve the listening situations that the hearing impaired have throughout their communities, thus improving their quality of life.