Statins are one of the most widely prescribed drug classes because they lower circulating low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL) and reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. Statin-mediated inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase also lowers substrates required for protein prenylation. This cholesterol-independent effect of statins can alter immune function. Lower protein prenylation can increase IL-1β. This pro-inflammatory cytokine can promote insulin resistance, which may be a factor in the recent evidence linking statins to increased incidence of diabetes. IL-1β is unique compared to most cytokines because it can be regulated by the NLRP3 inflammasome. In this thesis, we discovered that statins promote NLRP3-dependent insulin resistance in adipose tissue. We next hypothesized that statin-induced lowering of protein prenylation activated the NLRP3/Caspase-1 inflammasome, which would cause IL-1β-dependent insulin resistance in adipose tissue. We showed that atorvastatin impaired insulin signalling in adipose tissue from WT, but not IL-1β-/- mice. Treatment with a caspase-1 inhibitor prevented atorvastatin-inhibition of insulin signalling. The isoprenoid, Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) also prevented atorvastatin-induced defects in insulin signalling. Interestingly, atorvastatin- inhibition of insulin action was associated with decreased insulin-stimulated lipogenesis in both white adipose tissue and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The findings in this thesis suggest a statin-induced reduction in isoprenoids, required for protein prenylation production, impairs insulin action via IL-1β derived from activation of NLRP3/Caspase-1 inflammasome in adipose tissue. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Statins are one of the most widely prescribed drugs and used in the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Statins lower LDL often called bad cholesterol. However, some patients experience side effects such as higher blood glucose and increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is generally preceded by insulin resistance and this period of “prediabetes” is reversible. Inflammation is one factor involved in insulin resistance and in the development of type 2 diabetes. In this thesis, we discover that statins activate an inflammatory response known as the NLRP3 inflammasome, which leads to insulin resistance, particularly in fat tissue. Activation of this inflammasome by a statin, did not require lower cholesterol, but increased the inflammatory cytokine IL-1b, which was the key factor leading to insulin resistance in fat tissue. Inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome or IL-1b may prevent insulin resistance and risk of type 2 diabetes in people taking statins.

L’inflammasome NLRP3 est un complexe multi-protéique responsable de la production d’IL-1β en réponse à des signaux de danger. Certaines mutations de NLRP3 étant responsables de maladies inflammatoires l’activation de ce complexe se doit d’être finement régulée. Dans cette étude je me suis intéressé à l’importance de la protéine de choc thermique HSP70 dans l’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3. J’ai dans un premier temps mis en évidence que l’absence d’HSP70 entraine une amplification des symptômes de la péritonite chez la souris. Le manque d’HSP70 augmente également l’activation de la caspase-1 et la production d’IL-1β par les macrophages issus de la moelle osseuse de souris (BMDMs) à la suite d’un traitement par différents activateurs de NLRP3 in vitro. Ces phénomènes sont associés à une augmentation du nombre et de la taille des complexes ASC/NLRP3 dans la cellule. De manière correspondante, la surexpression d’HSP70 dans les BMDMs diminue l’activation de la caspase-1 et la production d’IL-1β après traitement par des activateurs de NLRP3. Une des explications possibles de l’effet inhibiteur d’HSP70 est son interaction avec NLRP3 que j’ai observé par PLA (Proximity Ligation Assay). J’ai également utilisé un choc thermique pour surexprimer HSP70 et observé une inhibition de l’inflammasome NLRP3 in vitro. Finalement, une hyperthermie in vivo inhibe également les symptômes de la péritonite chez la souris, soulignant la relevance physiologique de ces observations. Cette étude fournit donc des preuves de l’effet inhibiteur d’HSP70 sur l’inflammasome NLRP3 et met en lumière un possible nouvel outil de traitement des maladies inflammatoires. / NLRP3 inflammasome is a multi-protein complex aimed at producing IL-1β in response to danger signals. Gain of function mutations of NLRP3 are responsible for inflammatory diseases, so NLRP3-dependent inflammation required tight regulation. Here we investigated the importance of the stress sensor, Heat Shock Protein 70 (HSP70) on the NLRP3 inflammasome activation. First, the lack of HSP70 leads to a worsening of NLRP3-dependent peritonitis in mice. HSP70 deficiency also enhances caspase-1 activation and IL-1β production by murine Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages (BMDMs) under NLRP3 activators treatment in vitro. These phenomena are associated with an increase in the number and size of ASC/NLRP3 specks. At the opposite side, the overexpression of HSP70 in BMDMs decreases caspase-1 activation and IL-1β production under NLRP3 activators treatment in vitro. One possible explanation of the inhibitory effect of HSP70 is its interaction with NLRP3. A heat shock, used as a way to induce the expression of HSP70 also inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vitro. Finally, in vivo hyperthermia also inhibits peritonitis features in mice, highlighting the physiological relevance of our observations. This study provides evidences on the inhibitory role of HSP70 on the NLRP3 inflammasome and on the possibility to treat inflammatory diseases by inducing its expression, mainly by hyperthermia.

L'inflammation est un processus déclenché suite à la détection de pathogènes et de dommages tissulaires. Elle conduit à la sécrétion de cytokines pro-inflammatoires par les cellules immunitaires innées ainsi qu'au déclenchement de la pyroptose, mort cellulaire pro-inflammatoire. NLRP3 est une protéine senseur de stress cellulaire régulant le déclenchement de ces processus via la formation d'une plateforme multiprotéique appelée inflammasome. L'activation non contrôllée de NLRP3 conduit au développement d'une maladie auto-inflammatoire appelée CAPS (Cryopyrin associated periodic syndrome). De plus, l'inflammasome est impliqué dans le développement et la sévérité des symptômes de nombreuses maladies multifactorielles (diabète de type 2, athérosclérose, maladie de Parkinson et d'Alzheimer, sclérose en plaques, cancers...). Les mécanismes régulant l'activation de NLRP3 ne sont pas encore compris, mais les modifications post-traductionnelles de NLRP3 sont impliquées dans ce processus. Notre laboratoire a identifié différents sites d'ubiquitination et de phosphorylation sur NLRP3 par des approches biochimiques. Via la création de lignées cellulaires NLRP3 knock out reconstituées pour exprimer NLRP3 muté sur les résidus précédemment identifiés et de souris NLRP3 knock-in par la technique de CRISPR/Cas9, le travail de thèse a consisté en l'étude de l'impact fonctionnel de ces modifications. Ces résultats montrent que les substitutions de deux lysines identifiées comme étant ubiquitinées conduisent à une dérégulation de l’activation de l'inflammasome NLRP3 dans les cellules primaires. Un nouveau point de contrôle de l'activation de NLRP3 a ainsi pu être mis en lumière. / Inflammation is triggered after the sensing of pathogens or tissue damages. This process leads to the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by innate immune cells and to the triggering of a pro-inflammatory form of cell death called pyroptosis. NLRP3 protein is a sensor of cellular stress and regulates the triggering of these events through the formation of a multiproteic platform called inflammasome. NLRP3 activation has to be tightly controlled as its deregulation leads to the development of an auto-inflammatory disease called CAPS (Cryopyrin associated periodic syndrome). Moreover, NLRP3 inflammasome is associated with the development and the severity of numerous multifactorial diseases (type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, cancers…). The mechanisms involved in the regulation of NLRP3 activation are not fully understood. Recently, post-translational modifications of NLRP3 were shown to be important for the regulation of NLRP3 activation. Our lab has identified several phosphorylation and ubiquitination sites on this protein through biochemical studies. This phD work aims to identify the functional impact of these modifications. Thus, the generation of reconstituted cell lines expressing NLRP3 mutated on the previously identified residues and the generation of NLRP3 knock in mice via CRISPR/Cas9 technology were performed. The results show that substitution of two lysine residues previously identified as ubiquitinated leads to the deregulation of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in primary cells. This work highlights a new point of control in NLRP3 activation.

Inflammasome sind große intrazelluläre Multiproteinkomplexe und stellen einen wichtigen Bestandteil des angeborenen Immunsystems dar. Sie werden durch eine Vielzahl mikrobieller Moleküle, Gefahrensignale und kristalliner Substanzen aktiviert und führen zur Produktion von reifem IL-1β. In dieser Arbeit wurde der Fokus auf zwei Vertreter dieser Inflammasome gelegt, dem AIM2 und NLRP3 Inflammasom. Ersteres wird über intrazytoplasmatische DNA aktiviert und Defekte in seiner Regulation sind beispielsweise pathogenetisch relevant bei der chronischen Entzündung im Rahmen einer Psoriasis (Dombrowski et al. 2011) oder bei der Entstehung von Kolonkarzinomen mit Mikrosatelliteninstabilität (Woerner et al. 2007). Das NLRP3 Inflammasom kann durch unterschiedlichste Substanzen, wie z.B. Cholesterolkristalle, ATP, SDS oder Uratkristalle aktiviert werden. Pathogenetisch von Bedeutung ist eine Fehlregulation u.a. bei der Entstehung von CEDs. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, Kolonadenom und –karzinomzelllinen auf die Induzierbarkeit des AIM2 und NLRP3 Inflammasoms zu untersuchen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die Zelllinien entsprechend der Inflammasom-typischen Signalwege stimuliert, bzw. mit dsDNA transfiziert, und anschließend mittels RT-qPCR, ELISA und Western Blot die AIM2- und/oder IL-1β Genexpression, sowie die IL-1β Proteinsekretion bestimmt. In den untersuchten Darmzelllinien konnte unter den gewählten Versuchsmodalitäten weder eine funktionelle AIM2, noch eine funktionelle NLRP3 Inflammasomaktivierung nachgewiesen werden. Ein möglicher Grund hierfür könnte das Fehlen von für die Signalkaskade wichtigen Proteinen in den Kolonzelllinien sein. Dieses könnte erklärt werden durch die Überlegung, dass sich die verwendeten Kolonadenom- und karzinomzelllinien im Vergleich zu normalen Kolonzellen in einem zu stark entdifferenzierten Zustand befanden und somit zur Inflammasomaktivierung nicht mehr in der Lage waren. Vielleicht bedarf es auch anderer Zytokinstimulations- bzw. Transfektionszeiten, um eine IL-1β Sekretion in den Kolonzelllinien zu induzieren. / Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes that play an important role in the response of the innate immune system. Aim of this work was to investigate how colon adenoma cell lines and colon carcinoma cell lines react to stimulation with danger associated molecular patterns and transfection of double-stranded DNA and whether oligomerisation and activation of the AIM2 and NLRP3 Infalmmasome with subsequent IL-1 beta release is performed.

Neuroinflammation is considered to be an important underlying process in the pathology of major depressive disorder (MDD) within a subpopulation of patients. MDD is associated with increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the blood, and cytokine-based treatments can induce depression. In mice, the induction of systemic inflammation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can induce depressive-like behaviours that are associated with symptoms of MDD. Microglia mediate the neuroinflammatory response within the brain and have a critical role in inflammation-induced depressive- like behaviours. Microglia within the brain exist in low O2 conditions (~5 %), though experimentation in vitro is typically carried out in high O2 conditions (20 %). The NLRP3 inflammasome is a molecular complex central to the production of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β and the propagation of the inflammatory response. NLRP3 inflammasome activity has been implicated in chronic stress and inflammation-based models of depressive-like behaviours in mice. The aims of this thesis were to study LPS-induced depressive-like behaviour in C57BL/6J mice, the role of NLRP3 in the behavioural output and the influence of oxygen (O2) availability on NLRP3 inflammasome activity in microglia cell cultures. Acute LPS induced depressive-like behaviours were observed in hedonia-based tasks but not in the forced swim test (FST). However, acute LPS induces a brief period of inflammation that does not address the sustained nature of depression. A FST depressive-like behaviour was observed in a novel 3-day increasing dose LPS model of sustained inflammation, whilst circumventing the development of LPS tolerance. The LPS-induced sickness was partially dependent upon NLRP3, though the resulting depressive-like behaviour was not. NLRP3 inflammasome signalling in microglia was studied in 5 % O2 conditions to replicate the hypoxic environment within the brain. Primary microglia isolated from mixed glial cultures by mild trypsinisation exhibited functional NLRP3 inflammasome expression and activity. When exposed to 5 % O2 (24 hours), NLRP3 inflammasome activity and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-induced cell death was attenuated, whilst the production of other proinflammatory cytokines were unaffected. These data demonstrate the O2 sensitivity of NLRP3 inflammasome signalling in microglia. This thesis demonstrates a novel model of sustained inflammation and that inhibiting NLRP3 signalling may provide a target for attenuating neuroinflammation and the resulting behavioural changes. The importance of understanding the influence of O2 in microglia function and neuroinflammation was highlighted by the sensitivity of NLRP3 inflammasome activity to low O2.

O aumento da concentração sérica de testosterona está associado tanto a fatores de risco cardiovascular, incluindo obesidade abdominal e hipertensão arterial, como diretamente a doenças cardiovasculares (DCVs). Há evidências que a testosterona pode modular, positivamente, componentes envolvidos em processos de oxirredução (redox) e inflamatório, incluindo a geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) e produção de citocinas próinflamatórias e anti-inflamatórias. O inflamassoma NLRP3 é um componente do sistema imunológico inato e regulador importante da inflamação crônica. Sua ativação pode ser mediada pelo aumento de EROs, contribuindo para o processo inflamatório presente em diversas DCVs. Considerando que a testosterona representa uma fonte importante na produção de EROs, foi testada a hipótese que níveis suprafisiológicos de testosterona induzem ativação do complexo NLRP3 inflamassoma, com consequente prejuízo da função vascular. Esse estudo avaliou se níveis suprafisiológicos de testosterona são capazes de ativar o inflamassoma NLRP3 e se esta ativação contribui para alterações na reatividade vascular. Nosso estudo demonstrou que níveis supra fisiológicos de testosterona alteraram a função vascular, com participação dos receptores para andrógenos em camundongos C57BL/6J wild type (WT). Estes efeitos da testosterona não foram observados em camundongos WT incubados com MCC950 (inibidor do receptor NLRP3) e knockout NLRP3 (NLRP3- / - ). Além disso, a testosterona aumentou a geração vascular de EROs, determinada pela fluorescência de lucigenina e dihidroetidina. A geração de EROs foi prevenida por cianeto de carbonil mclorofenil hidrazona (CCCP), um desacoplador mitocondrial. A testosterona em níveis suprafisiológicos aumentou a expressão vascular de caspase-1 e interleucina-1? (IL-1?), como determinado por Western Blotting e Elisa, respectivamente. Esses dados sugerem que níveis suprafisiológicos de testosterona induzem disfunção vascular via geração de EROs e ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3 / Increased serum testosterone concentration is associated with both cardiovascular risk factors, including abdominal obesity and hypertension, and cardiovascular disease (CVD). There is evidence that testosterone positively modulates components involved in oxidative and inflammatory processes, including the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and production of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. NLRP3 inflammasome is a component of the innate immune system and an important modulator of chronic inflammation. NLRP3 activation can be mediated by increased levels of ROS, contributing to chronic inflammation in several CVDs. Considering that testosterone induces ROS production, we tested tested the hypothesis that supraphysiological levels of testosterone activates the NLRP3 inflammasome, with consequent impairment of vascular function. This study evaluated whether supraphysiological levels of testosterone activate NLRP3 inflammasome and whether NLRP3 activation contributes to testosterone-induced vascular dysfunction. Our study demonstrated that supraphysiological levels of testosterone, via activation of androgen receptors, altered vascular function in C57BL/6J wild type (WT) mice. The vascular effects of testosterone were not observed in WT mice incubation with MCC950 (NLRP3 receptor inhibitor) and NLRP3 (NLRP3 - / - ) knockout mice. In addition, testosterone increased vascular generation of ROS, as determined by lucigenin and dihydroetidine the fluorescence. ROS generation was prevented by carbonyl m-chlorophenyl hydrazone cyanide (CCCP), a mitochondrial uncoupler. Testosterone at supraphysiological levels increased the vascular expression of caspase-1 and interleukin-1? (IL-1?), as determined by Western blotting and Elisa, respectively. These data suggest that supraphysiological levels of testosterone induce vascular dysfunction through ROS generation and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome

Introdução: A disfunção erétil (DE) é definida como a incapacidade de alcançar ou manter a ereção do pênis para um desempenho sexual satisfatório, contribuindo significativamente para a baixa qualidade de vida e morbidade psicossocial masculina. A endotelina-1 (ET-1), um potente peptídeo vasoconstritor que promove contração lenta e sustentada em células de músculo liso vascular, possui grande importância na fisiopatologia da DE. Diversos estudos mostram que o aumento da expressão de mediadores inflamatórios está intimamente ligado ao desenvolvimento da DE. O inflamassoma é um complexo multiprotéico do sistema imune inato que atua através da ativação da caspase-1 e resulta na maturação de citocinas pró- inflamatórias, tais como interleucina- IL (IL-l?). O receptor NLRP3 faz parte do inflamassoma e sua ativação leva a clivagem de caspase-1 e consequente secreção de IL-1?. A ET-1, também possui papel importante na inflamação crônica vascular, mediando a liberação de citocinas pró-inflamatórias. No entanto, ainda é desconhecido se a ação pró- inflamatória da ET-1 em células de músculo liso é mediada pela ativação da via do inflamassoma. Hipótese: A ET-1 ativa o NLRP3 em células do músculo liso do corpo cavernoso (CMLCC), promovendo alterações na reatividade do corpo cavernoso (CC). Objetivo: Avaliar o papel da endotelina-1 na ativação do NLRP3 em CMLCC de camundongos. Métodos: CMLCC de camundongos C578BL/6 (WT) e NLRP3-/- foram cultivadas em meio de cultura DMEM acrescido de soro fetal bovino (SFB), 10%, foram pré- incubadas com endotelina-1 nas concentrações de 10-9, 10-8 e 10-7 M, em presença de LPS ou veículo. Avaliamos o efeito da deleção do NLRP3 sobre a reatividade do CC (contratilidade e relaxamento mediante estímulos por campo elétrico e/ou farmacológico). Após, avaliamos o efeito da ET-1 na ativação do NLRP3, nas alterações sobre a reatividade do CC de camundongos WT, e se estas persistiriam nos camundongos NLRP3-/- e caspase1/11-/- . Resultados: As células apresentaram-se fluorescentes para marcação para ?-actina e não para Von Willebrand, caracterizando assim que não houve contaminação com células endoteliais. A incubação com a ET-1 10-7 M por 24 h na presença de LPS ou veículo aumentou a atividade da caspase-1 em CMLCC de camundongos WT e este efeito não ocorreu nas CMLCC de camundongos NLRP3-/-. Não se observou diferença com relação à massa corporal ou massa dos órgãos entre os animais WT e NLRP3-/-. O CC de animais NLRP3-/- apresenta prejuízo para o relaxamento mediado por nitroprussiato de sódio (NPS) quando comparado com as tiras de CC de camundongos WT. A incubação com ET-1 10-7 M por 4 horas promove aumento na contração para fenilefrina (PE) e prejuízo no relaxamento induzido por nitroprussiato de sódio (NPS), e o mesmo efeito não é observado nas tiras de CC de camundongos NLRP3-/- e caspase1/11-/-. Conclusão: O NLRP3 contribui para o aumento na contração e prejuízo no relaxamento produzido pela ET-1 em CC de camundongos, possivelmente através da ativação da caspase-1 / Introduction: Erectile dysfunction (ED) is defined as the inability to achieve or maintain penile erection to perform sexual intercourse, it contributes significantly to the low quality of life and male psychosocial morbidity. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), a potent vasoconstrictor peptide that promotes slow and sustained contraction of vascular smooth muscle cells, has great importance in the pathophysiology of ED. Several studies show that increased expression of inflammatory mediators is closely linked to the development of ED. The inflammasome is a multiproteic complex of the innate immune system that acts through activation of caspase-1, which leads to maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 beta (IL-l?). The activation of NLRP3 receptor, part of the inflammasome, leads to caspase-1 cleavage and subsequent secretion of IL-1?. ET-1 also plays an important role in chronic vascular inflammation by mediating the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, it is still unknown whether pro-inflammatory actions of ET-1 on smooth muscle cells is mediated by the activation of the inflammasome. Hypothesis: ET-1 activates NLRP3 in smooth muscle cells of the corpora cavernosa (SMCCC), promoting changes in corpus cavernosum (CC) reactivity. Objective: To evaluate the role of endothelin-1 in the activation of the NLRP3 in SMCCC of mice. Methods: SMCCC of C57BL/6 (WT) and NLRP3-/- mice were grown in DMEM culture medium supplemented with bovine fetal serum (FBS) 10%, pre-incubated with endothelin-1 at concentrations of 10-9, 10- 8 and 10-7M, in the presence of LPS or vehicle. We evaluated the effect of the NLRP3 deletion on the reactivity of the CC (contractility and relaxation by electric field and/or pharmacological stimulation). After that, we evaluated the ET-1 effect on activation NLRP3, changes on the reactivity of the CC of WT, and if these alterations would persist NLRP3-/- and caspase1/11-/- mice. Results: The cells presented fluorescent labeling to ?-actin, but not for Von Willebrand factor, characterizing absence of endothelial cells contamination. The incubation with 10-7 M ET-1 for 24 h in the presence of LPS or vehicle increased caspase-1 activity in SMCCC from WT, but not from NLRP3-/- mice. No difference was observed in body mass or weight of the organs between WT and NLRP3-/- animals. The CC from NLRP3-/- animals displayed impaired relaxation mediated by sodium nitroprusside (SNP) when compared to WT CC. The incubation with ET-1 10-7 M for 4 hours promoted an increase in the contraction to phenylephrine (PE) and reduced relaxation induced by sodium nitroprusside (SNP). The same effect was not observed in CC strips from NLRP3-/- and caspase1/11-/- mice. Conclusion: NLRP3 contributes to the increase in contraction and impaired relaxation produced by ET-1 in mice CC, possibly by activation of caspase-1

Introdução: A disfunção erétil (DE) é definida como a incapacidade de alcançar ou manter a ereção do pênis para um desempenho sexual satisfatório, contribuindo significativamente para a baixa qualidade de vida e morbidade psicossocial masculina. A endotelina-1 (ET-1), um potente peptídeo vasoconstritor que promove contração lenta e sustentada em células de músculo liso vascular, possui grande importância na fisiopatologia da DE. Diversos estudos mostram que o aumento da expressão de mediadores inflamatórios está intimamente ligado ao desenvolvimento da DE. O inflamassoma é um complexo multiprotéico do sistema imune inato que atua através da ativação da caspase-1 e resulta na maturação de citocinas pró- inflamatórias, tais como interleucina- IL (IL-l?). O receptor NLRP3 faz parte do inflamassoma e sua ativação leva a clivagem de caspase-1 e consequente secreção de IL-1?. A ET-1, também possui papel importante na inflamação crônica vascular, mediando a liberação de citocinas pró-inflamatórias. No entanto, ainda é desconhecido se a ação pró- inflamatória da ET-1 em células de músculo liso é mediada pela ativação da via do inflamassoma. Hipótese: A ET-1 ativa o NLRP3 em células do músculo liso do corpo cavernoso (CMLCC), promovendo alterações na reatividade do corpo cavernoso (CC). Objetivo: Avaliar o papel da endotelina-1 na ativação do NLRP3 em CMLCC de camundongos. Métodos: CMLCC de camundongos C578BL/6 (WT) e NLRP3-/- foram cultivadas em meio de cultura DMEM acrescido de soro fetal bovino (SFB), 10%, foram pré- incubadas com endotelina-1 nas concentrações de 10-9, 10-8 e 10-7 M, em presença de LPS ou veículo. Avaliamos o efeito da deleção do NLRP3 sobre a reatividade do CC (contratilidade e relaxamento mediante estímulos por campo elétrico e/ou farmacológico). Após, avaliamos o efeito da ET-1 na ativação do NLRP3, nas alterações sobre a reatividade do CC de camundongos WT, e se estas persistiriam nos camundongos NLRP3-/- e caspase1/11-/- . Resultados: As células apresentaram-se fluorescentes para marcação para ?-actina e não para Von Willebrand, caracterizando assim que não houve contaminação com células endoteliais. A incubação com a ET-1 10-7 M por 24 h na presença de LPS ou veículo aumentou a atividade da caspase-1 em CMLCC de camundongos WT e este efeito não ocorreu nas CMLCC de camundongos NLRP3-/-. Não se observou diferença com relação à massa corporal ou massa dos órgãos entre os animais WT e NLRP3-/-. O CC de animais NLRP3-/- apresenta prejuízo para o relaxamento mediado por nitroprussiato de sódio (NPS) quando comparado com as tiras de CC de camundongos WT. A incubação com ET-1 10-7 M por 4 horas promove aumento na contração para fenilefrina (PE) e prejuízo no relaxamento induzido por nitroprussiato de sódio (NPS), e o mesmo efeito não é observado nas tiras de CC de camundongos NLRP3-/- e caspase1/11-/-. Conclusão: O NLRP3 contribui para o aumento na contração e prejuízo no relaxamento produzido pela ET-1 em CC de camundongos, possivelmente através da ativação da caspase-1 / Introduction: Erectile dysfunction (ED) is defined as the inability to achieve or maintain penile erection to perform sexual intercourse, it contributes significantly to the low quality of life and male psychosocial morbidity. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), a potent vasoconstrictor peptide that promotes slow and sustained contraction of vascular smooth muscle cells, has great importance in the pathophysiology of ED. Several studies show that increased expression of inflammatory mediators is closely linked to the development of ED. The inflammasome is a multiproteic complex of the innate immune system that acts through activation of caspase-1, which leads to maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 beta (IL-l?). The activation of NLRP3 receptor, part of the inflammasome, leads to caspase-1 cleavage and subsequent secretion of IL-1?. ET-1 also plays an important role in chronic vascular inflammation by mediating the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, it is still unknown whether pro-inflammatory actions of ET-1 on smooth muscle cells is mediated by the activation of the inflammasome. Hypothesis: ET-1 activates NLRP3 in smooth muscle cells of the corpora cavernosa (SMCCC), promoting changes in corpus cavernosum (CC) reactivity. Objective: To evaluate the role of endothelin-1 in the activation of the NLRP3 in SMCCC of mice. Methods: SMCCC of C57BL/6 (WT) and NLRP3-/- mice were grown in DMEM culture medium supplemented with bovine fetal serum (FBS) 10%, pre-incubated with endothelin-1 at concentrations of 10-9, 10- 8 and 10-7M, in the presence of LPS or vehicle. We evaluated the effect of the NLRP3 deletion on the reactivity of the CC (contractility and relaxation by electric field and/or pharmacological stimulation). After that, we evaluated the ET-1 effect on activation NLRP3, changes on the reactivity of the CC of WT, and if these alterations would persist NLRP3-/- and caspase1/11-/- mice. Results: The cells presented fluorescent labeling to ?-actin, but not for Von Willebrand factor, characterizing absence of endothelial cells contamination. The incubation with 10-7 M ET-1 for 24 h in the presence of LPS or vehicle increased caspase-1 activity in SMCCC from WT, but not from NLRP3-/- mice. No difference was observed in body mass or weight of the organs between WT and NLRP3-/- animals. The CC from NLRP3-/- animals displayed impaired relaxation mediated by sodium nitroprusside (SNP) when compared to WT CC. The incubation with ET-1 10-7 M for 4 hours promoted an increase in the contraction to phenylephrine (PE) and reduced relaxation induced by sodium nitroprusside (SNP). The same effect was not observed in CC strips from NLRP3-/- and caspase1/11-/- mice. Conclusion: NLRP3 contributes to the increase in contraction and impaired relaxation produced by ET-1 in mice CC, possibly by activation of caspase-1

Autofagia e ativação dos inflamassomas são dois processos celulares autônomos, que podem interagir entre si. Estes processos participam ativamente do controle de infecções ocasionadas por diversos patógenos intracelulares. Anteriormente, descrevemos o inflamassoma NLRP3 no controle do T. cruzi, agente causador da Doença de Chagas. Entretanto, o papel da autofagia nesse controle não era conhecido. Neste trabalho, foi demonstrado que o T. cruzi induz aumento da expressão de LC3-II, formação de autofagossomas e autolisossomos em macrófagos peritoneais (MPs) de camundongos C57BL/6 selvagens. Ainda, a manipulação farmacológica da autofagia interferiu com a capacidade dos MPs em controlar a infecção pelo T. cruzi, apontando esse processo como um mecanismo efetor envolvido no controle do protozoário por macrófagos. Nesse contexto, NLRP3 parece funcionar como um modulador do processo autofágico. Na ausência de NLRP3, a manipulação farmacológica da autofagia não interferiu no controle do T. cruzi por MPs. Isso se correlacionou ao fato do fluxo autofágico se encontrar interrompido em MPs de camundongos deficientes para NLRP3 em resposta à infecção, mas não em resposta à rapamicina e starvation. A razão do bloqueio no fluxo autofágico parece ser a incapacidade de MPs deficientes em NLRP3 em formar autolisossomos, fato visualizado em microscopia confocal e eletrônica. Interessante, NLRP3 parece agir independente de caspase-1/11 na regulação da autofagia. Por outro lado, a análise da expressão de genes autofágicos por PCR-array revelou que MPs de animais deficientes em NLRP3 apresentam alta expressão basal de genes relacionados com a formação e maturação de autofagossomas e autolisossomas. Em contrapartida, a infecção pelo T. cruzi inibe a expressão desses genes na ausência de NLRP3, ao contrário da indução observada em MPs selvagens. Juntos, esses dados mostram que NLRP3 induz autofagia funcional em resposta ao T. cruzi, sendo sua presença fundamental para impedir o escape do parasita pela inibição de genes autofágicos. / Autophagy and inflammasome activation are two cell-autonomous and cross-regulated processes involved in host resistance against infections. Our group previously described that NLRP3 inflammasome is required for the control of T. cruzi, causative agent of Chagas disease. However, the involvement of autophagy in this process was largely unknown. Here, we demonstrated that T. cruzi is able to induce an increase in LC3II expression, formation of autophagosome and autolysosomes in peritoneal macrophages (PMs) from C57BL/6 mice. Moreover, the pharmacological modulation of autophagic machinery influenced the trypanocidal ability of PMs, pointing out autophagy as an effector mechanism to control T. cruzi infection. In this sense, NLRP3 seems to be involved in the modulation of the autophagic process. In the absence of NLRP3, the pharmacological modulation of autophagy did not interfere in the control of T. cruzi by PMs. Furthermore, autophagic flux is blocked in these cells in response to infection, but not in response to rapamycin and starvation. In fact, whereas T. cruzi induces the formation of large autolysosomes (LC3&#43 and Lysotracker&#43)-containing amastigotes in WT macrophages, only small and single positive vesicles are found in the absence of NLRP3. Interesting, NLRP3 appears to act independently of caspase-1/11 on the regulation of autophagy. On the other hand, the PCR-array analysis of autophagic genes demonstrated that NLRP3-/- PMs have higher basal expression of genes related to the formation and maturation of autophagosomes and autolysosomes in comparison to WT cells. In contrast, T. cruzi inhibited the expression of these genes in the absence of NLRP3, unlike the induction observed in WT PMs. Together, these data show that NLRP3 induces functional autophagy in response to T. cruzi being its presence required to overcome the escape of the parasite by preventing its inhibition of autophagic genes.

Mon travail de thèse s'intéresse au rôle du récepteur à l'immunité innée NLRP3, composant essentiel de l'inflammasome, dans le développement tumoral pulmonaire. Nos résultats révèlent que les cellules épithéliales pulmonaires immortalisées expriment un inflammasome NLRP3 fonctionnel. De façon inattendue, nous montrons que l'expression du récepteur NLRP3 est fortement diminuée, voire perdue des lignées tumorales de CBNPC et dans des tumeurs de patients, comparé au tissu sain adjacent. Nous montrons que NLRP3, de façon totalement indépendante de l'inflammasome, est impliquée dans la régulation transcriptionnelle de H2AFX, le gène codant pour le variant d'histone H2AX, élément clé de la signalisation des dommages à l'ADN. L'absence de NLRP3 dans les cellules HBEC altère l'amplification et la transmission du signal en réponse à des cassures double brin, résultant in fine à moins de réparation. Ce défaut de réparation des cassures se traduit par une instabilité génomique, qui est en effet plus forte dans les adénocarcinomes pulmonaires exprimant de faible niveau de NLRP3. Mon travail de thèse identifie donc le récepteur NLRP3 comme un facteur clé de la réponse aux dommages à l'ADN et du maintien de l'intégrité génomique en promouvant la transcription de H2AFX dans les cellules épithéliales pulmonaires. Ce nouveau rôle de NLRP3, associé à sa perte dans les tumeurs de CBPNC en font un potentiel suppresseur de tumeur / During my PhD, I have been interested in the role of the innate immune receptor NLRP3, a key component of the inflammasome, in lung cancer development. Our results show the presence of a functional NLRP3 inflammasome in normal human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC). Surprisingly, NLRP3 expression is strongly down-regulated in a large panel of NSCLC cell lines and patient tumors compared to healthy tissue. Moreover, we unravel that NLRP3 contributes to the transcription of H2AFX, the coding gene for the histone variant H2AX, in an inflammasome independent-manner. The deletion of NLRP3 in HBEC impairs double strand break signal amplification and transduction, resulting in a decrease in DNA repair. This repair defect leads to genomic instability, which is increased in lung adenocarcinomas expressing low levels of NLRP3. My PhD work identifies NLRP3 as a key factor of the DNA damage response and genomic integrity maintenance by regulating the transcription of H2AFX. This new role for NLRP3, together with its loss in NSCLC, makes it as a potential tumor suppressor