Neste trabalho desenvolveu-se uma formulação adaptativa do método de elementos de contorno (MEC) para a análise de problemas de fratura elástica linear. Foi utilizado o método da colocação para a formulação das equações integrais de deslocamento e de tensão. Para a discretização das equações integrais foram utilizados elementos lineares que possibilitaram a obtenção das expressões exatas das integrais (integração analítica) sobre elementos de contorno e fratura. Para a montagem do sistema de equações algébricas foram utilizadas apenas equações de deslocamento, apenas equações de forças de superfície, ou as duas escritas para nós opostos da fratura levando, portanto ao método dos elementos de contorno dual usualmente empregado na análise de fratura. Para o processo de crescimento da trinca foi desenvolvido um procedimento especial objetivando a correta determinação da direção de crescimento da trinca. Os fatores de intensidade de tensão são calculados por meio da conhecida técnica de correlação de deslocamentos a qual relaciona os deslocamentos atuantes nas faces da fissura. Após a determinação dos fatores de intensidade de tensão é utilizada a teoria da máxima tensão circunferencial para a determinação do ângulo de propagação. O modelo adaptativo empregado é do tipo h onde apenas a sub-divisão dos elementos é feita com base em erros estimados. O erro a ser considerado foi estimado a partir de normas onde se consideraram: a variação aproximada dos deslocamentos, a variação das forças de superfície e a variação da energia de deformação do sistema, calculada com a sua integração sobre o contorno. São apresentados exemplos numéricos para demonstrar a eficiência dos procedimentos propostos. / In this work, an adaptative formulation of the boundary element method is developed to analyze linear elastic fracture problems. The collocation point method was used to formulate the integral equations for the displacements and stresses (or tractions). To discretize the integral equations, linear elements were used to obtain the exact expressions of the integrals over boundary elements and fracture. To construct the linear system of equations were used only displacement equations, traction equations or both of them written for opposite nodes of the fracture, leading to the dual boundary element formulation usually employed in the fracture analyses. For the process of growth of the crack a special procedure was developed aiming at the correct determination of the direction of growth of the crack. The stress intensity factors, to calculate he crack growth angle, are calculated through of correlation displacements technique which relates the displacements actuants in the faces of the crack. The employed adaptative model is the h-type where only the sub-division of the elements is done based on error estimate. The error estimates considered in this work are based on the following norms: displacement, traction and strain energy variations, this last considered from the integration over the boundary. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed procedures.

Notre nouvelle approche expérimentale consiste à étudier la fissuration de matériaux mous, principalement des gels polymériques et colloidaux, qui ont des tailles microstructurales micrométriques. Cette augmentation de la taille microscopique va avoir pour conséquence d’augmenter la taille de la zone de process et va rendre son observation plus facile avec des moyens standard de microscopie (à transmission et confocale).Pour se faire, nous avons mis au point un nouveau dispositif expérimental pour étudier la propagation de fissures dans des matériaux mous. Cette expérience permet de faire croître une fissure de manière contrôlée dans un échantillon mou et d’inspecter la pointe de fissure à haute résolution pour des fissures se propageant entre 1 µm/s and 1cm/s. En travaillant avec des gels de polymère physiques, nous avons analyse la forme de fissure ainsi que les champs de déplacement proches pointe (en utilisant des techniques de corrélation d’image) à petites et grandes échelles et à différentes vitesses. Nous avons montré qu’il existait une séparation d’échelles spatiales entre les échelles où l’élasticité linéaire s’applique, les échelles auxquelles les non linéarités émergent et les échelles auxquelles la dissipation se produit. Cette dernière échelle n’a pas pu être investigué dans le cas de gels polymériques. De récentes expériences sur des gels colloïdaux, ayant une longueur micro-structurale plus grande que celle des gels polymers, montre que nous sommes capables de sonder en temps réel les échelles d’endommagement lors de la fissuration. / Our novel experimental approach consists in studying fracture mechanics of soft materials, mainly polymer and colloidal gels, which have microstructures with large typical length scales. This increase in the microscopic length scale will consequently increase the typical size of the process zone and make its observation easier with standard microscopy techniques (optical or confocal).To do so, we designed a novel experimental device to study crack propagation in such soft materials. This experiment enables us to grow a unique crack in a controlled way in a soft specimen and to look at the crack tip at high magnification for crack velocities between 1 µm/s and 1cm/s. Working on physical polymer gels, we analysed the crack shape and crack displacement fields (using Digital Image Correlation) at large and intermediate scales for various velocities. We realized there was a separation of scales between the scale at which LEFM applies, the scale at which elastic nonlinearities emerge and the scale at which dissipation occurs. This last scale could not be investigated with the polymer gel. Recent experiments on colloidal gels, which have a microscopic length scale bigger than the one of polymer gels, show that we are able to probe damage at the microstructural scale.

Neste trabalho desenvolveu-se uma formulação adaptativa do método de elementos de contorno (MEC) para a análise de problemas de fratura elástica linear. Foi utilizado o método da colocação para a formulação das equações integrais de deslocamento e de tensão. Para a discretização das equações integrais foram utilizados elementos lineares que possibilitaram a obtenção das expressões exatas das integrais (integração analítica) sobre elementos de contorno e fratura. Para a montagem do sistema de equações algébricas foram utilizadas apenas equações de deslocamento, apenas equações de forças de superfície, ou as duas escritas para nós opostos da fratura levando, portanto ao método dos elementos de contorno dual usualmente empregado na análise de fratura. Para o processo de crescimento da trinca foi desenvolvido um procedimento especial objetivando a correta determinação da direção de crescimento da trinca. Os fatores de intensidade de tensão são calculados por meio da conhecida técnica de correlação de deslocamentos a qual relaciona os deslocamentos atuantes nas faces da fissura. Após a determinação dos fatores de intensidade de tensão é utilizada a teoria da máxima tensão circunferencial para a determinação do ângulo de propagação. O modelo adaptativo empregado é do tipo h onde apenas a sub-divisão dos elementos é feita com base em erros estimados. O erro a ser considerado foi estimado a partir de normas onde se consideraram: a variação aproximada dos deslocamentos, a variação das forças de superfície e a variação da energia de deformação do sistema, calculada com a sua integração sobre o contorno. São apresentados exemplos numéricos para demonstrar a eficiência dos procedimentos propostos. / In this work, an adaptative formulation of the boundary element method is developed to analyze linear elastic fracture problems. The collocation point method was used to formulate the integral equations for the displacements and stresses (or tractions). To discretize the integral equations, linear elements were used to obtain the exact expressions of the integrals over boundary elements and fracture. To construct the linear system of equations were used only displacement equations, traction equations or both of them written for opposite nodes of the fracture, leading to the dual boundary element formulation usually employed in the fracture analyses. For the process of growth of the crack a special procedure was developed aiming at the correct determination of the direction of growth of the crack. The stress intensity factors, to calculate he crack growth angle, are calculated through of correlation displacements technique which relates the displacements actuants in the faces of the crack. The employed adaptative model is the h-type where only the sub-division of the elements is done based on error estimate. The error estimates considered in this work are based on the following norms: displacement, traction and strain energy variations, this last considered from the integration over the boundary. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed procedures.

Evaluating the safety of unreinforced concrete structures, such as concrete dams, requires an accurate prediction of cracking. Developing a suitable constitutive material model and a reliable computational procedure for analysing cracking processes in concrete has been a challenging and demanding task. Although many analytical methods based on fracture mechanics have been proposed for concrete dams in the last few decades, they have not yet become part of standard design procedures. Few of the current research findings are being implemented by practising engineers when evaluating dam safety. This research is focused on the development of a suitable crack modelling and analysis method for the prediction and study of fracturing in concrete gravity dams, and consequently, for the evaluation of dam safety against cracking. The research aims to contribute to the continuing research efforts into mastering the mechanics of cracking in concrete dams. An analytical method for the purpose of establishing a crack constitutive model and implementing the model for the fracture analysis of concrete structures, in particular massive concrete gravity dams under static loading conditions, has been developed, verified and applied in the safety evaluation of a concrete gravity dam. The constitutive material model is based on non-linear fracture mechanics and assumes a bilinear softening response. The crack model has various improved features: (1) an enhanced mode I bilinear strain-softening approach has been put forward; (2) a new formula for bilinear softening parameters has been developed and their relation with linear softening has been outlined; (3) the influence of bilinear softening parameters on the cracking response has been studied; and (4) an enhanced modification to the shear retention factor which depends on the crack normal strain is included. The material model has been incorporated into a finite element analysis using a smeared crack approach. A sub-program was specially coded for this research. The validity of the proposed cracking model and the computational procedure developed for the purpose of analyzing the tensile fracture behaviour of concrete structures has been confirmed by verification on various concrete structures, including beams, a dam model and actual gravity dams. The crack modelling technique developed was successfully used in evaluating the safety of an existing concrete gravity dam in South Africa and adequately predicted the cracking response of the dam structure under static loadings. The main conclusions drawn are as follows: <ul><li>Both mode I and mode II fracture have been modelled successfully.</li> <li>The proposed bilinear softening model remains relatively simple to implement but significantly improves on predicting the softening response of “small-scale” concrete structures.</li> <li>Both plane stress and plane strain crack analyses have been considered and can be confidently adopted in two-dimensional applications.</li> <li>The proposed method is mesh objective.</li> <li>The crack modelling method developed can correctly predict the crack propagation trajectory and the structural behaviour with regard to fracturing in concrete structures.</li> <li>If not considering shear stress concentration near the tip of a crack, constitutive crack analysis normally indicates a higher safety factor and a higher Imminent Failure Flood (IFF) than the classical methods in the analysis of concrete gravity dams for safety evaluation.</li></ul> / Thesis (PhD(Civil Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Civil Engineering / PhD / unrestricted

Este trabalho trata da análise da propagação de fissuras, independente do tempo, em domínios bidimensionais utilizando uma formulação alternativa do método dos elementos de contorno (MEC). O MEC vem sendo utilizado com sucesso na análise de diversos problemas de engenharia. Considerando problemas de mecânica da fratura, o MEC é especialmente eficiente devido à redução da dimensionalidade de sua malha, o que permite a simulação do crescimento das fissuras sem as dificuldades do processo de remalhamento. Nesta pesquisa, desenvolvem-se formulações não lineares do MEC para a análise da propagação de fissuras em materiais quase frágeis. Nesses materiais, a zona de processo à frente da ponta da fissura introduz efeitos fisicamente não lineares no comportamento estrutural. Assim, para a simulação da presença da zona de processo, modelos não lineares são necessários. Classicamente a formulação dual do MEC é utilizada para modelar propagação de fissuras na quais equações singulares e hipersingulares são escritas para elementos definidos ao longo das faces das fissuras. O presente trabalho propõe uma segunda formulação utilizando um campo de tensões iniciais para a representação da zona coesiva. Nesta formulação, o termo de domínio da equação integral clássica do MEC é degenerado, de forma a atuar somente ao longo do caminho de crescimento das fissuras, sendo que esse procedimento dá origem a uma nova variável denominada dipolo, responsável por garantir o atendimento das condições de contorno. Em conjunto com essa nova formulação, se propõe o uso do operador tangente (OT), que é deduzido no trabalho, a fim de acelerar o processo de convergência da solução. Os resultados obtidos, por meio da formulação alternativa, são comparados tanto com dados experimentais quanto com o MEC dual, ambos disponíveis na literatura. As respostas encontradas foram satisfatórias no sentido de conseguir reproduzir o comportamento real da estrutura explorando as vantagens computacionais proporcionadas pelo OT. / This work presents a time-independent crack propagation analysis, in two-dimensional domains, using an alternative boundary element method (BEM) formulation. BEM has been used successfully to analyze several engineering problems. Considering fracture mechanics problems, BEM is especially efficient due to its mesh reduction aspects, which allows the simulation of crack growth without remeshing difficulties. In this research, nonlinear BEM formulations are develop in order to analyze crack propagation in quasi-brittle materials. Considering these materials, the process zone ahead of the crack tip leads to nonlinear effects related to structural behavior. Thus, nonlinear models are required for simulating the presence of the process zone. Classically, the dual BEM is used for modeling the crack propagation, in which singular and hyper-singular equations are written for elements defined along the crack faces. This work proposes an alternative formulation using the initial stress field to represent the cohesive zone. In this formulation, the classic domain integral term is degenerated in order to be non-null only at the crack growth path. This procedure leads the creation of new variable called dipole, which is responsible for ensuring the compliance of the boundary conditions. In addition to this new formulation, it is proposed the use of the tangent operator (TO), which is derived in this work, in order to accelerate the convergence. The results obtained using the new formulation, are compared with experimental data and dual BEM results available in the literature. The responses were found satisfactory in reproducing the behavior of real structures exploiting the computational advantages provided by the TO.

Este trabalho trata da análise da propagação de fissuras, independente do tempo, em domínios bidimensionais utilizando uma formulação alternativa do método dos elementos de contorno (MEC). O MEC vem sendo utilizado com sucesso na análise de diversos problemas de engenharia. Considerando problemas de mecânica da fratura, o MEC é especialmente eficiente devido à redução da dimensionalidade de sua malha, o que permite a simulação do crescimento das fissuras sem as dificuldades do processo de remalhamento. Nesta pesquisa, desenvolvem-se formulações não lineares do MEC para a análise da propagação de fissuras em materiais quase frágeis. Nesses materiais, a zona de processo à frente da ponta da fissura introduz efeitos fisicamente não lineares no comportamento estrutural. Assim, para a simulação da presença da zona de processo, modelos não lineares são necessários. Classicamente a formulação dual do MEC é utilizada para modelar propagação de fissuras na quais equações singulares e hipersingulares são escritas para elementos definidos ao longo das faces das fissuras. O presente trabalho propõe uma segunda formulação utilizando um campo de tensões iniciais para a representação da zona coesiva. Nesta formulação, o termo de domínio da equação integral clássica do MEC é degenerado, de forma a atuar somente ao longo do caminho de crescimento das fissuras, sendo que esse procedimento dá origem a uma nova variável denominada dipolo, responsável por garantir o atendimento das condições de contorno. Em conjunto com essa nova formulação, se propõe o uso do operador tangente (OT), que é deduzido no trabalho, a fim de acelerar o processo de convergência da solução. Os resultados obtidos, por meio da formulação alternativa, são comparados tanto com dados experimentais quanto com o MEC dual, ambos disponíveis na literatura. As respostas encontradas foram satisfatórias no sentido de conseguir reproduzir o comportamento real da estrutura explorando as vantagens computacionais proporcionadas pelo OT. / This work presents a time-independent crack propagation analysis, in two-dimensional domains, using an alternative boundary element method (BEM) formulation. BEM has been used successfully to analyze several engineering problems. Considering fracture mechanics problems, BEM is especially efficient due to its mesh reduction aspects, which allows the simulation of crack growth without remeshing difficulties. In this research, nonlinear BEM formulations are develop in order to analyze crack propagation in quasi-brittle materials. Considering these materials, the process zone ahead of the crack tip leads to nonlinear effects related to structural behavior. Thus, nonlinear models are required for simulating the presence of the process zone. Classically, the dual BEM is used for modeling the crack propagation, in which singular and hyper-singular equations are written for elements defined along the crack faces. This work proposes an alternative formulation using the initial stress field to represent the cohesive zone. In this formulation, the classic domain integral term is degenerated in order to be non-null only at the crack growth path. This procedure leads the creation of new variable called dipole, which is responsible for ensuring the compliance of the boundary conditions. In addition to this new formulation, it is proposed the use of the tangent operator (TO), which is derived in this work, in order to accelerate the convergence. The results obtained using the new formulation, are compared with experimental data and dual BEM results available in the literature. The responses were found satisfactory in reproducing the behavior of real structures exploiting the computational advantages provided by the TO.

Concrete, which was hitherto considered as a brittle material, has shown much better softening behavior after the post peak load than anticipated. This behavior of concrete did put the researchers in a quandary, whether to categorize concrete under brittle materials or not. Consequently concrete has been called a quasi-brittle material. Fracture mechanics concepts like Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and Plastic limit analysis applicable to both brittle and ductile materials have been applied to concrete to characterize the fracture behavior. Because of quasi-brittle nature of concrete, which lies between ductile and brittle response and due to the presence of process zone ahead of crack/notch tip instead of a plastic zone, it is found that non-linear fracture mechanics (NLFM) principles are more suitable than linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) principles to characterize fracture behavior. Fracture energy, fracture process zone (FPZ) size and the behavior of concrete during fracture process are the fracture characteristics, which are at the forefront of research on concrete fracture. Another important output from the research on concrete fracture has been the size effect. Numerous investigations, through mathematical modeling and experiments, have been carried out and reported in literature on the effect of size on the strength of concrete and fracture energy. Identification of the sources of size effect is of prime importance to arrive at a clear analytical model, which gives a comprehensive insight into the size effect. With the support of an unambiguous theory, it is possible to incorporate the size effects into codes of practices of concrete design. However, the theories put forth to describe the size effect do not seem to follow acceptable regression. After introduction in Chapter-1 and literature survey in Chapter-2, Chapter-3 details the study on size effect through three point bend (TPB) tests on 3D geometrically similar specimens. Fracture behavior of beams with smaller process zone size in relation to ligament dimension approaches LEFM. The fracture energy obtained from such beams is said to be size independent. In the current work Size effect law (Bazant et al. 1987) is used on beams geometrically similar in three dimensions with the depth of the largest beam being equal to 750mm, and size independent fracture energy G Bf is obtained. In literature very few results are available on the results obtained from testing geometrically similar beams in three dimensions and with such large depth. In the current thesis the results from size effect tests yielded average fracture energy of 232 N/m. Generally the fracture energies obtained from 2D-geometrically similar specimens are in the range of 60-70 N/m as could be seen in literature. From 3D-geometrically similar specimens, the fracture energies are higher. The reason is increased peak load, could be due to increased width. The RILEM fracture energy Gf , determined from TPB tests, is said to be size dependent. The assumption made in the work of fracture is that the total strain energy is utilized for the fracture of the specimen. The fracture energy is proportional to the size of the FPZ, it also implies that FPZ size increases with increase in (W−a) of beam. This also means that FPZ is proportional to the depth W for a given notch to depth ratio, because for a given notch/depth, (W−a) which is also W(1 − a ) is proportional to W`because (1 − a ) is a constant. WWThis corroborates the fact that fracture energy increases with size. Interestingly, the same conclusion has been drawn by Abdalla & Karihaloo (2006). They have plotted a curve relating fracture process zone length and overall depth the beam. In the present study a new method namely Fracture energy release rate method is suggested. In the new method the plot of Gf / (W−a) versus (W−a) is obtained from a set of experimental results. The plot is found to follow power law and showed almost constant value of Gf / (W−a) at larger ligament lengths. This means that fracture energy reaches a constant value at large ligament lengths reaffirming that the fracture energy from very large specimen is size independent. The new method is verified for the data from literature and is found to give consistent results. In a quasi-brittle material such as concrete, a fracture process zone forms ahead of a pre-existing crack (notch) tip before the crack propagates from the tip. The process zone contains a scatter of micro-cracks, which coalesce into one or more macro-cracks, which eventually lead to fracture. These micro-cracks and macro-cracks release stresses in the form of acoustic waves having different amplitudes. Each micro or macro crack formation is called an acoustic emission (AE) event. Through AE technique it is possible to locate the positions of AE events. The zone containing these AE events is termed the fracture process zone (FPZ). In Chapter-4, a study on the evolution of fracture process zone is made using AE technique. In the AE study, the fracture process zone is seen as a region with a lot of acoustic emission event locations. Instead of the amplitudes of the events, the absolute AE energy is used to quantify the size of the process zone at various loading stages. It has been shown that the continuous activities during the evolution of fracture process zone correspond to the formation of FPZ, the size of which is quantified based on the density of AE events and AE energy. The total AE energy released in the zone is found to be about 78% of the total AE energy released and this is viewed as possible FPZ. The result reasonably supports the conclusion, from Otsuka and Date (2000) who tested compact tension specimens, that zone over which AE energy is released is about 95% can be regarded as the fracture process zone. As pointed out earlier, among the fracture characteristics, the determination of fracture energy, which is size independent, is the main concern of research fraternity. Kai Duan et al. (2003) have assumed a bi-linear variation of local fracture energy in the boundary effect model (BEM) to showcase the size effect due to proximity of FPZ to the specimen back boundary. In fact the local fracture energy is shown to be constant away from boundary and reducing while approaching the specimen back boundary. The constant local fracture energy is quantified as size independent fracture energy. A relationship between Gf , size independent fracture energy GF , un-cracked ligament length and transition ligament length was developed in the form of equations. In the proposed method the transition ligament length al is taken from the plot of histograms of energy of AE events plotted over the un-cracked ligament. The value of GF is calculated by solving these over-determined equations using the RILEM fracture energies obtained from TPB tests. In chapter-5 a new method involving BEM and AE techniques is presented. The histogram of energy of AE events along the un-cracked ligament, which incidentally matches in pattern with the local fracture energy distribution, assumed by Kai Duan et al. (2003), along the un-cracked ligament, is used to obtain the value of GF , of course using the same equations from BEM developed by Kai Duan et al. (2003). A critical observation of the histogram of energy of AE events, described in the previous chapter, showed a declining trend of AE event pattern towards the notch tip also in addition to the one towards the specimen back boundary. The pattern of AE energy distribution suggests a tri-linear rather than bi-linear local fracture energy distribution over un-cracked ligament as given in BEM. Accordingly in Chapter-6, GF is obtained from a tri-linear model, which is an improved bi-linear hybrid model, after developing expressions relating Gf , GF , (W−a) with two transition ligament lengths al and blon both sides. The values of Gf , and GF from both bi-linear hybrid method and tri-linear method are tabulated and compared. In addition to GF , the length of FPZ is estimated from the tri-linear model and compared with the values obtained from softening beam model (SBM) by Ananthan et al. (1990). There seems to be a good agreement between the results. A comparative study of size independent fracture energies obtained from the methods described in the previous chapters is made. The fracture process in concrete is another interesting topic for research. Due to heterogeneity, the fracture process is a blend of complex activities. AE technique serves as an effective tool to qualitatively describe the fracture process through a damage parameter called b-value. In the Gutenberg-Richter empirical relationship log 10N=a−bM, the constant ‘b’ is called the b-value and is the log linear slope of frequency-magnitude distribution. Fault rupture inside earth’s crust and failure process in concrete are analogous. The b-value, is calculated conventionally till now, based on amplitude of AE data from concrete specimens, and is used to describe the damage process. Further, sampling size of event group is found to influence the calculated b-value from the conventional method, as pointed out by Colombo et al. (2003). Hence standardization of event group size, used in the statistical analysis while calculating b-value, should be based on some logical assumption, to bring consistency into analytical study on b-value. In Chapter-7, a methodology has been suggested to determine the b-value from AE energy and its utilization to quantify fracture process zone length. The event group is chosen based on clusters of energy or quanta as named in the thesis. Quanta conform to the damage stages and justify well their use in the determination of the b-value, apparently a damage parameter and also FPZ length. The results obtained on the basis of quanta agree well with the earlier results.

The objective of this diploma thesis is the stress-strain analysis of the crack terminating at the orthotropic bi-material interface suggested as the plane problem of the linear fracture mechanics. The first part is engaged in basic relations of the linear fracture mechanics. The second part is focused on the singularity exponent evaluation for the crack impinging and generally inclined with respect to the bi-material interface. It follows the determination of the generalized stress intensity factors applying the analytical-numerical approach represented by the finite element analysis. The last part of this work is focused on the testing of algorithms applied to the specific crack and bi-material interface configurations. A conclusion discusses the influence of the bi-material mechanical properties and the angel of the crack inclination to the obtained numerical results.