No description available.

Thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are indispensable for the development of T cells in the thymus. Two subtypes of TECs exist in the thymus, medullary mTECs and cortical cTECs. Both mTECs and cTECs originate from endodermal thymic epithelial progenitor cells (TEPCs) in the embryo, but how the differentiation of TEPCs is regulated is not well understood. The aims of this thesis were to establish the role of Notch signalling in TEPC differentiation, and how it interacts with known regulators such as FOXN1 and the NFκB pathway. Gene expression data showed that Notch is active in TEPCs and exhibits a correlation with the mTEC lineage. Loss of Notch function led to a significant reduction in the number of mTECs in the thymus, and this can be attributed to aberrant mTEC specification. Furthermore, the duration of Notch activity in determining mTEC number appears limited to the early phase of organogenesis, and precedes RANK/NFκB mediated mTEC proliferation. Gain of Notch function resulted in a considerable shift to a primitive, TEPC-like phenotype, and subsequently a latent increase in mTEC frequency. Finally, transcriptomic and functional analyses pointed to a cross-repressive mechanism between Notch and FOXN1 in TEPCs. Taken together, these results identified Notch as a novel regulator of mTEC specification, likely through maintaining the potency of fetal TEPCs, a prerequisite for mTEC lineage commitment.

The sex determining region Y-box 2 (sox2) gene is one of the most important transcription factors during development, particularly the development of the central nervous system (CNS). It is expressed in embryonic stem cells and later in neural stem cells, where it modulates their maintenance and differentiation. In humans, heterozygous mutations are associated with eye malformations, including anophthalmia and severe microphthalmia. Also, a subset of patients has extra-ocular phenotypes, such as hearing loss, seizures and pituitary hypoplasia. Although the roles of sox2 in embryonic stem cells and eye development are well studied, the function of sox2 in brain development and disease is still elusive. The aim of this project was to characterize a novel role for sox2 in the development of zebrafish epithalamus, which was identified from an in silico screen previously performed in our laboratory. The zebrafish epithalamus, located in the dorsal diencephalon, consists of three main structures: the pineal gland, the parapineal organ and the habenular nuclei. The pineal gland, also known as epiphysis, is a photoreceptive (in zebrafish) and neuroendocrine organ that detects light and rhythmically produces melatonin in order to regulate the circadian rhythms. The parapineal organ is located to the left side of the pineal gland and is important for the elaboration of the asymmetries observed between the left and right habenular nuclei. Finally, the bilateral habenulae are part of the dorsal diencephalic conduction system that links the forebrain with the mid- and hindbrain. The left and right habenulae show both molecular and neuroanatomical asymmetries, including differences in neuropil organization, in levels of gene expression and in the morphology and connectivity of their neurons’ projections. The relatively simple architecture of the pineal gland and the asymmetric character of the habenulae provide a useful tool for studying cell-fate determination, cell migration and establishment of brain asymmetries. In this study, we used zebrafish as a model to dissect the novel functions of sox2 in the development of the epithalamus. We showed that sox2 works synergistically with Notch pathway to negatively regulate neurogenesis within the pineal gland. The pineal gland consists of only two cell types: the photoreceptors and the projection neurons. Previous studies showed that the Notch and BMP pathways are important for the proper specification of these cells. Here, we show that sox2 normally inhibits the photoreceptor cell fate, whereas it has no effect on the number of projection neurons. Therefore, sox2 complements Notch and BMP pathways in cell-fate determination within the pineal gland. In addition, downregulation of sox2 results in abnormal parapineal organ development and disruption of the asymmetric architecture of the habenulae. A subset of sox2 morphant embryos develops right-sided parapineal organs, which is consistent with abnormal bilateral expression of the Nodal gene, pitx2 (paired-like homeodomain transcription factor 2). Also, timelapse experiments showed that migration of the parapineal cells is defective, resulting in scattered cells. The aberrant parapineal development leads to disorganization of the habenular nuclei, as shown by the abnormal neuropil arrangement and the expression of the asymmetric marker kctd12.1 (potassium channel tetramerisation domain containing 12.1).

La conversion de la protéine prion cellulaire PrPC en une isoforme pathologique, la protéine prion scrapie PrPSc, est à l'origine d'un groupe de maladies neurodégénératives, les Encéphalopathies Spongiformes Transmissibles (EST). De nombreux travaux indiquent que la toxicité de la PrPSc implique une déviation de la fonction normale de la PrPC, cependant le rôle physiologique de la protéine prion n’est que partiellement compris. Dans ce travail, nous nous sommes attachés à identifier des voies de signalisation mobilisées par la PrPC qui pourraient à la fois rendre compte du rôle de cette protéine dans le développement du système nerveux et être impliquées dans la pathogénèse des EST. Nous montrons que la protéine prion contrôle l’activité de la voie Notch, une voie de signalisation qui joue un rôle majeur dans le développement mais également dans l’homéostasie du système nerveux central et la plasticité synaptique. Dans des modèles ex vivo et in vivo d’EST, nous mettons en évidence une diminution de l’activité de la voie Notch, ainsi que de l’expression des récepteurs de la famille Eph - connus pour leur implication dans l’activité synaptique. Cette diminution des Eph est retrouvée dans des cellules dépourvues de PrPC. Ainsi, l’observation d’un profil similaire entre la perte d’expression de la PrPC et l’infection par les prions renforce l’idée d’une déviation de la fonction normale de la PrPC par la PrPSc. Des inhibiteurs de l’activité histone désacétylase (HDAC) permettent de rétablir l’expression des acteurs de la voie Notch et des récepteurs Eph aussi bien dans les cellules déplétées en PrPC que dans celles infectées par les prions, suggérant que des mécanismes épigénétiques sont impliqués dans le contrôle transcriptionnel de ces gènes par la protéine prion. Ce travail fournit les bases pour évaluer un effet bénéfique des inhibiteurs de HDAC dans un modèle de souris infectées par les prions et ainsi déterminer si les HDAC pourraient constituer de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour combattre les EST. / The conversion of the cellular prion protein PrPC into a pathogenic isoform, the scrapie prion protein PrPSc, lies at the root of a group of neurodegenerative disorders known as Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs). Several lines of evidence indicate that PrPSc-mediated toxicity involves a subversion of PrPC normal function, however, our knowledge of PrPC physiological role is still far from complete. In this work, we sought to identify signalling pathways mobilized by PrPC that could accommodate both its role in central nervous system development and its implication in TSE pathogenesis. We show that the prion protein controls the activity of the Notch pathway, which plays an overriding role during embryonic development as well as central nervous system homeostasis and synaptic plasticity. In both ex vivo and in vivo models of TSE, we monitored a decrease in Notch activity, together with reduced expression of Eph receptors, which are key players in synaptic activity. The reduction in Eph is also found in PrPC-depleted cells. Hence, our observation of a similar signature of PrPC depletion and prion infection strengthens the view that PrPSc diverts PrPC function. We found a restoration of Notch and Eph effectors expression in response to histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, both in PrPC-depleted and prion-infected cells, suggesting that epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the PrP-dependent transcriptional control of these genes. This work provides a foundation for assessing a beneficial effect of HDAC inhibition in prion-infected mice and thereby defining whether HDAC could represent novel therapeutic targets to combat TSEs.

No description available.

La voie de signalisation Notch joue un rôle essentiel dans le développement et l'homéostasie de l’épithélium intestinal et présente un potentiel oncogénique dans le cancer du côlon (CRC). L'un de ses gènes cibles, HES1, est un répresseur transcriptionnel de divers gènes, dont KLF4, facteur impliqué dans l'homéostasie intestinale et qui favorise la différenciation des cellules à mucus. De plus, afin d’éviter une activité aberrante de la voie Notch, HES1 exerce une boucle de rétrocontrôle négative sur son propre promoteur. Notre laboratoire s’intéresse à RIP140, un corégulateur transcriptionnel qui réprime l'activité de nombreux facteurs de transcription impliqués dans divers processus physiopathologiques. Dans l'épithélium intestinal, RIP140 inhibe la prolifération cellulaire et régule la différenciation en cellules de Paneth. L'objectif de ce travail a été d'étudier le dialogue entre RIP140 et la voie de signalisation Notch/HES1 ainsi que son impact sur différents paramètres cellulaires en utilisant différentes lignées cellulaires cancéreuses colorectales humaines ainsi que des modèles murins présentant une invalidation du gène Rip140. Pour cela, diverses expériences ont été mises en place en utilisant le gène HES1 comme principal marqueur d’activation de la voie Notch dans les lignées cellulaires de CRC SW620 et HT29. L’expression du gène HES1 a été analysée au niveau protéique, ARNm et transcriptionel en utilisant respectivement les techniques de Western-blot et d’immunofluorescence, de RT-QPCR et de gène rapporteur luciférase. L'activité de la voie Notch a été modulée par l'expression ectopique du domaine intracellulaire de récepteur Notch (NICD) ou en utilisant un inhibiteur de la γ-sécrétase. Le dialogue entre RIP140 et la voie de signalisation Notch est étroitement lié au niveau d'activation de la voie Notch et au niveau d’expression du facteur de transcription HES1. A de faibles niveaux d’activité de la voie Notch, RIP140 est une cible négative de NICD et exerce un effet positif sur la transcription du gène HES1 qui implique, au moins en partie, le complexe RBPJ/NICD. A de niveaux élevés d’activé de la voie Notch, RIP140 devient une cible positive de HES1 et exerce un effet négatif sur la transcription de ce gène en contribuant à la boucle de rétrocontrôle négative de HES1. De manière intéressante, comme le gène HES1, RIP140 a un impact important sur différents paramètres cellulaires. En effet, RIP140, est non seulement capable d’inhiber la prolifération des cellules intestinales, mais est également capable d’augmenter l'expression du gène KLF4 et de favoriser la différenciation en cellules à mucus. Conformément à ce dialogue entre RIP140 et la voie Notch/HES1, nous avons ensuite montré que HES1 et RIP140 inhibent mutuellement leurs effets sur la différenciation et la prolifération cellulaires. Nos données démontrent ainsi l'existence d'une boucle de rétrocontrôle impliquant RIP140 et la voie Notch/HES1 dans les lignées cellulaires de CRC. En effet, le gène RIP140 est à la fois une cible et un régulateur de la voie de signalisation Notch/HES1. Une activité aberrante de la voie Notch bascule la régulation de l'expression du gène HES1 par RIP140 d'un effet positif à un effet négatif via la boucle de rétrocontrôle négative de HES1. De plus, ce lien puissant entre RIP140 et HES1 a un impact sur la différenciation et la prolifération cellulaires. Il sera nécessaire d’analyser le recrutement de RIP140 et HES1 sur différents promoteurs cibles et de valider l'impact de ce dialogue in vivo, en utilisant un modèle de souris que j’ai développé au sein du laboratoire et qui présentent une invalidation conditionnelle du gène Rip140 dans l'épithélium intestinal. / The Notch signaling pathway plays an essential role in intestinal development and homeostasis and has an oncogenic potential in colon cancer (CRC). One of its target genes HES1 is a transcription repressor of a number of genes, including KLF4, which is implicated in intestinal homeostasis and promotes Goblet cell differentiation. In addition, to avoid aberrant activity of the Notch pathway, HES1 exerts a negative feedback loop on its own promoter. Our laboratory is studying RIP140, a transcriptional coregulator which represses the activity of many transcription factors involved in various pathophysiological processes. In the intestinal epithelium, RIP140 inhibits cell proliferation and regulates differentiation towards the Paneth cell lineage. The goal of this work was to investigate the crosstalk between RIP140 and the Notch/HES1 pathway and to study its cellular impacts in human CRC cells. Various experiments have been set up using the HES1 gene as the main output of the Notch pathway in two CRC cell lines (SW620 and HT29). HES1 gene expression has been assessed at the protein, mRNA and transcriptional levels using western-blot/immunofluorescence, RT-QPCR and luciferase reporter assays, respectively. The activity of the Notch pathway has been modulated through ectopic expression of the Notch intracellular domain (NICD) or using a γ-secretase inhibitor. RIP140 crosstalk with the Notch signaling pathway is tightly related to the level of activation of the Notch pathway and to the level of HES1 expression. At low Notch activity, RIP140 is a negative target of NICD and exerts a positive effect on HES1 gene transcription which involves, at least partly, the RBPJ/NICD complex. When the Notch pathway is fully activated, RIP140 becomes a positive target of HES1 and exerts a negative effect on HES1 gene transcription by contributing to the HES1 negative feedback loop. Interestingly, as it is the case for HES1, RIP140 has a strong impact on different cellular parameters. Indeed, we found that RIP140, not only decreases intestinal cell proliferation, but also increases KLF4 gene expression and Goblet cell differentiation. In line with the strong crosstalk between RIP140 and the Notch/HES1 pathway, we then showed that HES1 and RIP140 mutually inhibit their effects on cell differentiation and proliferation. Altogether, our data demonstrated the existence of a feed-back loop involving RIP140 and the Notch/HES1 pathway in CRC cells. Indeed, the RIP140 gene is both a target and a regulator of the Notch/HES1 signaling pathway. A high level of Notch/HES1 activity switches the regulation of HES1 gene expression by RIP140 from a positive to a negative effect through the HES1 negative feedback loop. Moreover, this strong link between RIP140 and HES1 has an impact on cell differentiation and proliferation. It would be however interesting to demonstrate the recruitment of each factor on target promoters and to validate the impact of this strong crosstalk, in vivo, using the newly mouse model that I developed with a conditional knock-out of the Rip140 gene in the intestinal epithelium.

Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PNETs) are the most common neuroendocrine tumours diagnosed in humans and dogs. Due to the highly heterogeneous nature of these tumours, definitive data are still lacking over the molecular mechanisms involved in their cancerous behaviour. This study focused on insulinoma (INS), as it is the most commonly diagnosed PNET in human and veterinary oncology. INS is an insulin-producing tumour that causes a hypoglycaemic syndrome related to the excessive insulin production. In humans, it is often a small benign neoplasm readily curable by surgical resection whereas, in dogs, INS is often malignant. Despite current treatment modalities, malignant canine and human INS have a poor prognosis as patients tend to develop metastases in liver and lymph nodes that do not respond to current therapies. From a comparative oncology perspective, the close resemblance of canine and human malignant INS makes canine INS an interesting study model for human INS. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are critical for the engraftment and chemoresistance of many tumours. Although CSCs have been isolated from a range of solid tumours, a comprehensive characterisation of INS CSCs has not yet been reported. In this study, it was confirmed that INS CSCs can be enriched and are potential targets for novel INS therapies. Highly invasive and tumourigenic human and canine INS CSCs were successfully isolated and exhibited greater resistance to chemotherapy, which may play a significant role in the poor prognosis of this disease. To date, the mechanisms by which tumours spread and the clinical causes of chemoresistance remain only partially understood. Here, RNA-sequencing analysis was performed over a small set of canine INS tumour samples in order to identify mechanisms involved in INS carcinogenesis through different stages of the disease. Preliminary data showed that distinct gene profiles characterised early and late stage of canine INS. Interestingly, differential gene expression and gene pathways analysis, highlighted that sets of genes involved in pancreatic embryogenesis and insulin secretion were overexpressed in canine primary INS lesions compared with normal pancreas. The Notch pathway is fundamental in pancreatic embryogenesis and it has been previously associated with carcinogenesis of neuroendocrine tumours and with the CSC phenotype. Protein analysis showed that the Notch pathway is activated in both human and canine INS CSCs, particularly when treated with chemotherapy, indicating that the Notch pathway may be involved in chemoresistance. Additionally, it was demonstrated that inhibition of the Notch pathway decreased INS CSCs' survival and chemoresistance, both in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide preclinical evidence that anti-Notch therapy may improve outcomes for patients with malignant INS.

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