Le noyau est un organite caractéristique des cellules eucaryotes et les propriétés mécaniques de ce dernier jouent un rôle essentiel dans le comportement de la cellule, notamment sa motilité, sa polarité et sa survie. Le noyau est entouré par une enveloppe comprenant une membrane interne et une membrane externe, ainsi que de nombreuses protéines. Mes objectifs de thèse étaient de comprendre des mécanismes moléculaires déficients dans deux types de maladies génétiques causées par des mutations dans les lamines: la dystrophie musculaire d’Emery-Dreifuss et les syndromes de type progéroïde.Dans un premier temps, nous avons montré que l’émerine s’auto-associe in vitro et en cellules (Herrada et al. ACS Chem. Biol. 2015). J’ai ensuite étudié la structure des oligomères d’émerine, déterminé le fragment protéique minimal nécessaire à la formation de ces oligomères et décrit l’impact de mutations de l’émerine, causant une dystrophie musculaire d’Emery-Dreifuss, sur son auto-assemblage (Samson et al. Biomol NMR Assign. 2016 ; Samson et al. FEBS J. 2016). Puis, j’ai montré que seule cette forme auto-assemblée de l’émerine est capable d’interagir avec la lamine A et que la phosphorylation de l’émerine par la kinase Src, observée suite à un stress mécanique, régule cette interaction entre l’enveloppe nucléaire et le nucléosquelette.Pour finir, j’ai montré que la forme monomérique de l’émerine est capable de former un complexe ternaire avec BAF et la lamine A. Après avoir mesuré les affinités protéine-protéine au sein de ce complexe, identifié les fragments minimaux des différentes protéines permettant de former ce complexe et mis au point un protocole robuste de purification de ce complexe, j’ai pu obtenir des cristaux de ce complexe dans plusieurs conditions. Par la suite, nous avons pu résoudre la structure de ce complexe par remplacement moléculaire avec une résolution de 2 Å. Enfin, j'ai montré que les mutations dans les lamines de type A provoquant des syndromes de type progéroïde pouvaient altérer l'interaction avec BAF in vitro, et nos collaborateurs, l'équipe du Dr B. Buendia (Paris Diderot), ont montré que ces mêmes mutations induisaient une diminution significative de la proximité entre la lamine A et BAF dans les cellules HeLa. Un article, où je suis premier auteur, vient d’être soumis au journal NSMB. / The nucleus is an organelle characteristic of eukaryotic cells and its mechanical properties play an essential role in the behavior of the cell, in particular its motility, polarity and survival. It is surrounded by an envelope comprising an inner membrane and an outer membrane, as well as a large number of proteins. These proteins are either anchored at the nuclear membrane, as emerin, or form a filament meshwork lining the inner nuclear membrane, as lamins. My thesis objectives were to understand molecular mechanisms deficient in two types of genetic diseases caused by mutations in inner nuclear envelope proteins: Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, associated to mutations in emerin and A-type lamins, and progeroid syndromes caused by mutations in A-type lamins.First, we showed that the emerin protein self-assembles in vitro and in cells (Herrada, Samson et al., ACS Chem. Biol., 2015). I then studied the structure of emerin oligomers, determined the minimal protein fragment necessary for the formation of these oligomers, identify residues forming the structural core of these oligomers by solid-state NMR in collaboration with the group of Prof A. Lange (FMP Berlin), and described the impact of emerin mutations causing Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy on emerin self-assembly (Samson et al., Biomol. NMR Assign. 2016, Samson et al., FEBS J. 2017). Then, I observed, mainly using solution-state NMR, that only the self-assembled form of emerin is able to interact with A-type lamin tail, and that mutants causing Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy and unable to self-assemble are also defective in A-type lamin binding. I also obtained preliminary data showing that phosphorylation of emerin by the Src kinase, observed after a mechanical stress in purified nuclei, regulates the interaction between self-assembled emerin and A-type lamins.Finally, I showed that the monomeric form of emerin is able to form a ternary complex with A-type lamin tail through the chromatin-associated protein Barrier-to-Autointegration Factor (BAF). After having measured the protein-protein affinities within this complex, identified the minimal protein fragments involved in the complex and developed a robust protocol for purification of this complex, I was able to obtain crystals under several conditions. Subsequently, I solved the 3D structure of this complex by molecular replacement at a resolution of 2 Å. Finally, I showed that mutations in A-type lamins causing autosomal recessive progeroid syndromes impair interaction with BAF in vitro, and our collaborators at Univ. Paris Diderot, the team of Dr B. Buendia, showed that these same mutations induce a significant decrease in the proximity between lamin A and BAF in HeLa cells. An article with me as a first author is in preparation that reports all these new data.

Le matériel génétique contenant l'information des cellules humaines se présente sous forme de chromosomes linéaires dont l'extrémité est protégée par une structure appelée télomères. Les télomères correspondent à une séquence d'ADN répétée, recouverte de protéines spécifiques, qui permettent aux cellules d'étiqueter l'extrémité de leurs chromosomes afin de les différencier des cassures internes de l'ADN nécessitant une réparation. Ainsi, ils jouent un rôle prépondérant dans la protection du génome. Les chromosomes sont organisés et compartimentés dans le noyau de la cellule. Cette organisation est primordiale, la proximité des chromosomes à la membrane nucléaire qui délimite ce noyau est essentielle pour de nombreuses fonctions régulatrices du génome, comme l'activation et la répression des gènes contenant les informations. A chaque division cellulaire, cette organisation est perdue après le désassemblage de la membrane nucléaire et la condensation de la chromatine qui va permettre de correctement répartir les chromosomes entre les cellules filles. Après la division, les noyaux des cellules filles se reforment, la membrane nucléaire est rétablie, et les chromosomes sont repositionnés comme dans la cellule mère. Ce mécanisme de mémoire spatiale est encore inconnu mais est vital au maintien de la stabilité du génome. Une large proportion de télomères sont ancrés à la membrane nucléaire en fin de division, et y restent durant la reformation du noyau. Le laboratoire s'intéresse à cette association afin de caractériser son rôle pendant cette phase clé du cycle cellulaire. Nous cherchons à comprendre ce fonctionnement chez les cellules normales et les cellules de patients atteints de pathologies associées au vieillissement accéléré. Ce projet de thèse à pour but de comprendre l'impact d'une déformation de la membrane nucléaire sur le matériel génétique, et sur l'intégrité des télomères qui protègent l'information génétique. Nous utilisons des techniques de pointe de microscopie, et de biologie cellulaire et moléculaire afin de mieux comprendre le lien entre l'organisation du noyau et le maintien de la stabilité du génome. / The material that contains genetic information of human cells consists in linear chromosomes. The extremities of chromosomes are protected by a specific structure called telomeres. Telomeres are made of repeated DNA sequence, covered by special proteins that prevent cells to recognize extremities of their chromosomes as internal DNA break, thus not to perform unnecessary repair that will result in genome instability. Therefore, telomeres play a major role in genome protection. Chromosomes are spatially organized in the cell nucleus. This organization is important as positioning of chromosomes in the nucleus ensures proper regulatory functions of the genome, such as activation or repression of genes. During the cell division process, this organization is lost after nuclear membrane disassembly and the condensation of DNA, to allow correct segregation of chromosomes between daughter cells. After cell division, the nuclei of daughter cells are reformed, and nuclear membrane is reconstructed. The chromosomes are then relocated as in the mother cell. This mechanism of spatial memory is not well understood yet, but is key to maintain stability of the genome. A large proportion of telomeres are anchored to the nuclear membrane at the end of mitosis, and stay during nuclear envelope reformation. Our laboratory focuses on characterizing the role of telomere anchoring during this important phase of cell cycle. In particular, we want to understand this mechanism in normal cells and cells from patients with premature aging disease. This thesis aims to understand the impact of nuclear envelope abnormalities on the genetic material, in particular on telomere integrity, as telomeres protect genetic information. Here, we use microscopy approaches and techniques of molecular and cellular biology to better understand the link between nuclear organisation and genome stability maintenance.

The nucleus of eukaryotic cells is a vitally important organelle that sequesters the genetic information of the cell, and protects it with the help of two highly evolved structures, the nuclear envelope (NE) and nuclear pore complexes (NPCs). Together, these two structures mediate the bidirectional trafficking of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm by forming a barrier. NE transmembrane proteins (NETs) embedded in either the outer nuclear membrane (ONM) or the inner nuclear membrane (INM) play crucial roles in both nuclear structure and functions, including: genome architecture, epigenetics, transcription, splicing, DNA replication, nuclear structure, organization and positioning. Furthermore, numerous human diseases are associated with mutations and mislocalization of NETs on the NE. There are still many fundamental questions that are unresolved with NETs, but we focused on two major questions: First, the localization and transport rate of NETs, and second, the transport route taken by NETs to reach the INM. Since NETs are involved with many of the mechanisms used to maintain cellular homeostasis, it is important to quantitatively determine the spatial locations of NETs along the NE to fully understand their role in these vital processes. However, there are limited available approaches for this task, and moreover, these methods provide no information about the translocation rates of NETs between the two membranes. Furthermore, while the trafficking of soluble proteins between the cytoplasm and the nucleus has been well studied over the years, the path taken by NETs into the nucleus remains in dispute. At least four distinct models have been proposed to suggest how transmembrane proteins destined for the INM cross the NE through NPC-dependent or NPC-independent mechanisms, based on specific features found on the soluble domains of INM proteins. In order to resolve these two major questions, it is necessary to employ techniques with the capabilities to observe these dynamics at the nanoscale. Current experimental techniques are unable to break the temporal and spatial resolution barriers required to study these phenomena. Therefore, we developed and modified single-molecule techniques to answer these questions. First, to study the distribution of NETs on the NE, we developed a new single-molecule microscopy method called single-point single-molecule fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (smFRAP), which is able to provide spatial resolution <10 nm and, furthermore, provide previously unattainable information about NET translocation rates from the ONM to INM. Secondly, to examine the transport route used by NETs destined for the INM, we used a single-molecule microscopy technique previously developed in our lab called single-point edge-excitation sub-diffraction (SPEED) microscopy, which provides spatio-temporal resolution of <10 nm precision and 0.4 ms detection time. The major findings from my doctoral research work can be classified into two categories: (i) Technical developments to study NETs in vivo, and (ii) biological findings from employing these microscopy techniques. In regards to technical contributions, we created and validated of a new single-molecule microscopy method, smFRAP, to accurately determine the localization and distribution ratios of NETs on both the ONM and INM in live cells. Second, we adapted SPEED microscopy to study transmembrane protein translocation in vivo. My work has also contributed four main biological findings to the field: first, we determined the in vivo translocation rates for lamin-B receptor (LBR), a major INM protein found in the nucleus of cells. Second, we verified the existence of peripheral channels in the scaffolding of NPCs and, for the first time, directly observed the transit of INM proteins through these channels in live cells. Third, our research has elucidated the roles that both the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and intrinsically disordered (ID) domains play in INM protein transport. Finally, my work has elucidated which transport routes are used by NETs destined to localize in the INM. / Biology

No / Ran is a small ras-related GTPase that controls the nucleocytoplasmic exchange of macromolecules across the nuclear envelope. It binds to chromatin early during nuclear formation and has important roles during the eukaryotic cell cycle, where it regulates mitotic spindle assembly, nuclear envelope formation and cell cycle checkpoint control. Like other GTPases, Ran relies on the cycling between GTP-bound and GDP-bound conformations to interact with effector proteins and regulate these processes. In nucleocytoplasmic transport, Ran shuttles across the nuclear envelope through nuclear pores. It is concentrated in the nucleus by an active import mechanism where it generates a high concentration of RanGTP by nucleotide exchange. It controls the assembly and disassembly of a range of complexes that are formed between Ran-binding proteins and cellular cargo to maintain rapid nuclear transport. Ran also has been identified as an essential protein in nuclear envelope formation in eukaryotes. This mechanism is dependent on importin-β, which regulates the assembly of further complexes important in this process, such as Nup107–Nup160. A strong body of evidence is emerging implicating Ran as a key protein in the metastatic progression of cancer. Ran is overexpressed in a range of tumors, such as breast and renal, and these perturbed levels are associated with local invasion, metastasis and reduced patient survival. Furthermore, tumors with oncogenic KRAS or PIK3CA mutations are addicted to Ran expression, which yields exciting future therapeutic opportunities.

The eukaryotic nuclear envelope (NE), separates the nucleoplasm from cytoplasm and is made up of two concentric lipid membranes, the outer and the inner nuclear membranes (ONM and INM), the nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) and an underlying filamentous nuclear lamina. The INM contains hundreds of unique transmembrane proteins of which only a handful have been characterized. In this thesis, I aimed to understand the functional organization of proteins in the nuclear envelope and I focused on investigating the functions of a recently identified INM transmembrane protein, Samp1. We have developed a novel and robust approach, MCLIP, to identify specific protein-protein interactions taking place in live cells. Using MCLIP, we have shown that Samp1 interacts with proteins of the LINC complex, the nuclear lamina and components of the mitotic spindle. Samp1's specific interactions with a variety of binding partners, suggest that Samp1 plays important roles both in interphase and in mitosis.  We have also shown that Samp1 can provide a binding site at the INM for the GTPase Ran, a master regulator of protein interactions in interphase and in mitosis. Furthermore, we have also investigated the role of Samp1 in cell differentiation using two independent model systems. In human iPSCs, ectopic expression of Samp1 promoted differentiation despite pluripotent culture conditions. In C2C12 myoblast, depletion of Samp1 completely blocked differentiation into myotubes. The two studies complement each other and suggest that Samp1 has a strong differentiation promoting activity. Taken together, the findings in this thesis, give insights on the unexpected and unforeseen roles played by a transmembrane protein in different fundamental cellular process. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript. Paper 5: Manuscript.</p>

Le juste positionnement du noyau durant la formation musculaire semble important pour la fonction musculaire et des défauts ont été associés à plusieurs maladies musculaires. Le positionnement nucléaire dépend des microtubules (MTs), qui sont réorganisés depuis le centrosome, dans les myoblastes proliférants, vers l’enveloppe nucléaire (EN), dans les myotubes différenciés. Cette réorganisation s'accompagne de la redistribution des protéines centrosomales vers l’EN qui adopte le rôle de centre organisateur des microtubules (MTOC) lors de la différenciation myogénique. Néanmoins, les mécanismes sous-jacents restent inconnus. Ici, nous avons identifié les protéines Nesprin-1 et Sun1/2, localisées respectivement à la membrane nucléaire externe et interne, comme impliquées dans le recrutement de la fonction MTOC à l’EN. Les cellules déficientes en Nesprin-1 ou Sun1/2 ont montré une localisation altérée des protéines centrosomales dans le cytoplasme et l’absence des MTs depuis l’EN. De plus, Nesprin-1alpha, une myo-isoforme de Nesprin-1, s’associait aux protéines centrosomales Akap450, Pericentrin et Pcm1 dans les myotubes C2C12 et était suffisante pour corriger les défauts observés dans des cellules déplétées en Nesprin-1. Parmi les protéines centrosomales recrutées par Nesprin-1alpha, seule Akap450 semble nécessaire à la nucléation des MTs à l’EN. Ce processus, médié par Akap450 et Nesprin-1alpha, s’est avéré important pour le positionnement nucléaire lors du développement des myotubes. Ces résultats renforcent notre compréhension sur le lien causal entre des défauts lors de la formation du MTOC à l’EN et des défauts de positionnement nucléaire dans les dystrophies musculaires. / The accurate position of the nucleus during skeletal muscle formation seems to be important for muscle function, and defects have been associated with numerous muscle diseases. Nuclear positioning requires microtubules (MTs) which are reorganized from the centrosome in proliferating myoblasts to the nuclear envelope (NE) in differentiated myotubes. This dramatic MT reorganization is accompanied by a redistribution of proteins from the centrosome to the NE which thus takes over the function as a microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) during myogenic differentiation. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Here, we identified Nesprin-1 and Sun1/2, outer and inner nuclear membrane proteins, respectively, to be involved in the recruitment of MTOC function to the NE. Nesprin-1 or Sun1/2 deficient cells displayed mislocalization of centrosomal proteins to the cytoplasm and failed to regrow MTs from the NE. Moreover, the muscle-specific isoform of Nesprin-1, namely Nesprin-1alpha, was shown to be highly associated with the centrosomal proteins Akap450, Pericentrin and Pcm1 in C2C12 myotubes and to be sufficient to rescue the observed defects in Nesprin-1 depleted cells. Among the centrosomal proteins localizing at the NE during myogenic differentiation, solely Akap450 seemed to be required for MT nucleation. Akap450-Nesprin-1alpha-mediated MT nucleation from the NE was demonstrated to play an important role in nuclear positioning during myotube formation. These findings strengthen our understanding on how defects in MTOC formation at the NE can link to nuclear positioning defects in muscular dystrophies.

Introdução: As Distrofias Musculares Congênitas (DMCs) são um grupo clínica e geneticamente heterogêneo de doenças musculares que se manifestam ao nascimento ou no primeiro ano de vida, sendo caracterizadas por hipotonia, fraqueza muscular, retardo do desenvolvimento motor e retrações fibrotendíneas. O músculo esquelético apresenta-se distrófico, mas sem alterações estruturais específicas. Em quase metade dos casos a doença é causada pela deficiência da laminina alfa;-2 (merosina). Outras deficiências proteicas descritas incluem: colágeno VI, selenoproteína N1, várias glicosiltransferases responsáveis pela glicosilação da alfa- distroglicana e lamina A/C. Vários genes já foram identificados. Objetivo: o objetivo deste estudo foi a caracterização clínica, histológica e molecular das crianças com DMC por deficiência de lamina A/C. Método: Foram incluídos 13 pacientes com diagnóstico clínico e histológico de DMC, com expressão muscular normal para distrofina, sarcoglicanas, merosina, colágeno 6 e disferlina. Os pacientes foram reavaliados segundo protocolo clínico e neurológico. As biópsias musculares realizadas previamente foram revisadas e o estudo das mutações no gene da lamina A/C foi realizado através de sequenciamento de toda região codificadora do gene. Resultados: Identificamos mutações em 30,7% dos pacientes (quatro casos) com fenótipo clínico de DMC por deficiência de lamina A/C. Todas as mutações encontradas (p.E358K, p.R249W, e p.N39S) ocorreram em heterozigose e de novo e já haviam sido descritas na literatura em pacientes com distrofias musculares. Em geral, estes pacientes apresentavam um grave comprometimento motor com o característico aspecto de cabeça caída, com início dos sintomas nos primeiros dois anos de vida. A CPK estava elevada entre 2 a 6 vezes o padrão superior da normalidade. O padrão histológico variou desde um músculo levemente até gravemente distrófico. Curiosamente, no estudo histológico do músculo, um dos pacientes apresentou agregados intracitoplasmáticos. Um outro paciente apresentava associadamente alterações neurogênicas ao estudo eletroneuromiográfico. Em todos os casos observamos complicações respiratórias, cardíacas e distúrbios de deglutição. Houve um caso de morte súbita, provavelmente em decorrência de arritmia cardíaca. Conclusões: A correlação genótipo-fenótipo permanece difícil, mas todos os casos apresentaram sinal da cabeça caída, comprometimento respiratório, cardíaco e biópsia muscular distrófica. A ampliação do conhecimento clínico e histológico pode orientar o diagnóstico e direcionar para o estudo molecular adequado, além de permitir o diagnóstico precoce das complicações, tão frequentes na DMC por deficiência de lamina A/C. Os exons 1, 4 e 6 são os mais frequentemente mutados e devem ser pesquisados inicialmente. Esta série de casos contribui também por demonstrar a distribuição universal da doença / Background: The Congenital Muscular Dystrophies (CMD) are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of myopathies characterized by muscle hypotonia, delayed motor development and early onset of progressive muscle weakness with dystrophic pattern on muscle biopsy. The clinical course is broadly variable and can comprise the involvement of the brain and eyes. Almost half of the cases is caused by deficiency of laminin-alfa 2 (merosin). Other protein deficiencies described include: collagen VI, selenoprotein N1, several glycosyltransferases responsible for glycosylation of alfa-dystroglycan and lamin A/C. Several genes have been identified and the increased knowledge of new clinical and histological forms of CMD can guide diagnosis and direct appropriate molecular studies. LMNA-related CMD is often characterized by muscle weakness and a dropped head developed in the early years of life. Regarding lamin A/C deficiency, the immunohistochemical findings can be normal, probably because the protein change is functional only; this makes diagnosis using muscle samples more difficult. Objectives: The aim of this study was to characterize the clinical, histological and molecular aspects in patients with CMD related to deficiency of lamin A/C. Methods: thirteen children with clinical and histological diagnosis of CMD with normal muscle expression for dystrophin, merosin, collagen 6, sarcoglycans and dysferlin were included in this study. The LMNA gene was sequenced after amplification of all coding exons. In addition, the muscle biopsies were revised. Results: In 30.7% (four cases) of our patients with typical clinical phenotype of lamin A/C deficiency were detected mutations on LMNA gene and all of them presented dropped-head syndrome, restrictive ventilator insufficiency, cardiac changes, increased serum CPK level and myopathic/dystrophic aspect on muscle biopsy. Two of the patients had normal motor development milestones in the first months of life and subsequently developed cervical and limb weakness. The other two patients presented a more severe motor involvement and failure to walk. One patient showed associated peripheral neuropathy. Curiously one case had myofibrillar aggregates on muscle biopsy. All mutations (p.E358K, p.R249W and p.N39S) were heterozygous and de novo and had been previously described in patients with muscular dystrophy. Conclusion: Genotype/phenotype correlation in CMD remains difficult. However patients with LMNA mutation and CMD seems to have a more homogeneous phenotype characterized by dropped head, severe motor disability, and cardiac and pulmonary involvement. Mutations on exons 1, 4 and 6 should be tested first. This case series also contributes for showing the universal distribution of the disease

Introdução: As Distrofias Musculares Congênitas (DMCs) são um grupo clínica e geneticamente heterogêneo de doenças musculares que se manifestam ao nascimento ou no primeiro ano de vida, sendo caracterizadas por hipotonia, fraqueza muscular, retardo do desenvolvimento motor e retrações fibrotendíneas. O músculo esquelético apresenta-se distrófico, mas sem alterações estruturais específicas. Em quase metade dos casos a doença é causada pela deficiência da laminina alfa;-2 (merosina). Outras deficiências proteicas descritas incluem: colágeno VI, selenoproteína N1, várias glicosiltransferases responsáveis pela glicosilação da alfa- distroglicana e lamina A/C. Vários genes já foram identificados. Objetivo: o objetivo deste estudo foi a caracterização clínica, histológica e molecular das crianças com DMC por deficiência de lamina A/C. Método: Foram incluídos 13 pacientes com diagnóstico clínico e histológico de DMC, com expressão muscular normal para distrofina, sarcoglicanas, merosina, colágeno 6 e disferlina. Os pacientes foram reavaliados segundo protocolo clínico e neurológico. As biópsias musculares realizadas previamente foram revisadas e o estudo das mutações no gene da lamina A/C foi realizado através de sequenciamento de toda região codificadora do gene. Resultados: Identificamos mutações em 30,7% dos pacientes (quatro casos) com fenótipo clínico de DMC por deficiência de lamina A/C. Todas as mutações encontradas (p.E358K, p.R249W, e p.N39S) ocorreram em heterozigose e de novo e já haviam sido descritas na literatura em pacientes com distrofias musculares. Em geral, estes pacientes apresentavam um grave comprometimento motor com o característico aspecto de cabeça caída, com início dos sintomas nos primeiros dois anos de vida. A CPK estava elevada entre 2 a 6 vezes o padrão superior da normalidade. O padrão histológico variou desde um músculo levemente até gravemente distrófico. Curiosamente, no estudo histológico do músculo, um dos pacientes apresentou agregados intracitoplasmáticos. Um outro paciente apresentava associadamente alterações neurogênicas ao estudo eletroneuromiográfico. Em todos os casos observamos complicações respiratórias, cardíacas e distúrbios de deglutição. Houve um caso de morte súbita, provavelmente em decorrência de arritmia cardíaca. Conclusões: A correlação genótipo-fenótipo permanece difícil, mas todos os casos apresentaram sinal da cabeça caída, comprometimento respiratório, cardíaco e biópsia muscular distrófica. A ampliação do conhecimento clínico e histológico pode orientar o diagnóstico e direcionar para o estudo molecular adequado, além de permitir o diagnóstico precoce das complicações, tão frequentes na DMC por deficiência de lamina A/C. Os exons 1, 4 e 6 são os mais frequentemente mutados e devem ser pesquisados inicialmente. Esta série de casos contribui também por demonstrar a distribuição universal da doença / Background: The Congenital Muscular Dystrophies (CMD) are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of myopathies characterized by muscle hypotonia, delayed motor development and early onset of progressive muscle weakness with dystrophic pattern on muscle biopsy. The clinical course is broadly variable and can comprise the involvement of the brain and eyes. Almost half of the cases is caused by deficiency of laminin-alfa 2 (merosin). Other protein deficiencies described include: collagen VI, selenoprotein N1, several glycosyltransferases responsible for glycosylation of alfa-dystroglycan and lamin A/C. Several genes have been identified and the increased knowledge of new clinical and histological forms of CMD can guide diagnosis and direct appropriate molecular studies. LMNA-related CMD is often characterized by muscle weakness and a dropped head developed in the early years of life. Regarding lamin A/C deficiency, the immunohistochemical findings can be normal, probably because the protein change is functional only; this makes diagnosis using muscle samples more difficult. Objectives: The aim of this study was to characterize the clinical, histological and molecular aspects in patients with CMD related to deficiency of lamin A/C. Methods: thirteen children with clinical and histological diagnosis of CMD with normal muscle expression for dystrophin, merosin, collagen 6, sarcoglycans and dysferlin were included in this study. The LMNA gene was sequenced after amplification of all coding exons. In addition, the muscle biopsies were revised. Results: In 30.7% (four cases) of our patients with typical clinical phenotype of lamin A/C deficiency were detected mutations on LMNA gene and all of them presented dropped-head syndrome, restrictive ventilator insufficiency, cardiac changes, increased serum CPK level and myopathic/dystrophic aspect on muscle biopsy. Two of the patients had normal motor development milestones in the first months of life and subsequently developed cervical and limb weakness. The other two patients presented a more severe motor involvement and failure to walk. One patient showed associated peripheral neuropathy. Curiously one case had myofibrillar aggregates on muscle biopsy. All mutations (p.E358K, p.R249W and p.N39S) were heterozygous and de novo and had been previously described in patients with muscular dystrophy. Conclusion: Genotype/phenotype correlation in CMD remains difficult. However patients with LMNA mutation and CMD seems to have a more homogeneous phenotype characterized by dropped head, severe motor disability, and cardiac and pulmonary involvement. Mutations on exons 1, 4 and 6 should be tested first. This case series also contributes for showing the universal distribution of the disease

L'ADN peut être endommagé par des facteurs environnementaux ou intrinsèques au fonctionnement des cellules. Ces facteurs induisent différents types de lésions dont les cassures double brins (CDBs). Les CDBs sont particulièrement dangereuses pour les cellules et une réparation inefficace ou non précise de ces cassures peut entraîner des mutations ou des translocations qui peuvent être à l'origine de cancer. Afin d'éviter l'instabilité génétique que peuvent induire les CDBs, les cellules ont développé deux principaux mécanismes de réparation: la ligature d'extrémités non homologues (NHEJ pour non homologous end joining) et la recombinaison homologue (HR pour homologous recombination). L’utilisation de l’un ou de l’autre de ces mécanismes est finement régulée et une dérégulation de cet équilibre induit une importante instabilité génomique.Tous ces mécanismes ont lieu dans le noyau des cellules qui, chez les mammifères est fortement hétérogène, comportant différents compartiments et des régions où la chromatine est plus ou moins compacte. Cette hétérogénéité implique que la réparation de l’ADN doit pouvoir être efficace dans différents contextes nucléaires. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai étudié l’influence de l’architecture nucléaire sur le choix des mécanismes de réparation des CDBs. J’ai montré d’une part que la protéine appartenant au pore nucléaire Nup153 influence l’équilibre entre HR et NHEJ et d’autre part que la position d’une CDB influe sur le choix du mécanisme de réparation.Mes résultats démontrent que l’organisation des gènes dans le noyau est un nouveau paramètre à prendre en compte dans l’étude des mécanismes de réparation de l’ADN et de tumorigénèse. / DNA is constantly assaulted by various damaging agents, leading to different types of lesions including double-strand breaks (DSBs). DSBs are the most harmful lesions to the cells and their inaccurate or inefficient repair can trigger genomic instability and tumorigenesis. To cope with DSBs, cells evolved several repair pathways, including non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR). A fine regulation of the balance between these two pathways is necessary to avoid genomic instability.All of these mechanisms happen in the nucleus, which is highly heterogeneous in mammalian cells. Indeed, it encompasses several compartments and regions of various chromatin compaction levels. My PhD project focused on the influence of nuclear architecture on DNA repair pathway choice. I demonstrated on one hand that the nuclear pore protein Nup153 influences the balance between HR and NHEJ and on the other hand that the position of a DSB influences the choice of the repair pathway that will be used.My results demonstrate that gene positioning is a new important parameter in the study of DNA repair and tumorigenesis.

Chez Arabidopsis, l’enveloppe nucléaire constitue un site de nucléation des microtubules à partir des complexes à gamma-tubuline. Conservées des plantes à l'Homme, les protéines GIPs/MZT1 ont été initialement découvertes comme partenaires d’AtGCP3. J’ai consacré ma thèse à la caractérisation moléculaire et fonctionnelle des AtGIPs et de leurs partenaires à l’interface nucléocytoplasmique. Mes résultats confirment l’appartenance des GIPs aux complexes à gamma-tubuline, et démontrent leur association entre elles et avec TSA1 (TonSoKu [TSK]-Associating protein 1) et l'histone centromérique CenH3. Les interactions génétiques entre les gènes GIPs, TSA1 et TSK révèlent des anomalies sévères à l'échelle de l'organisme, des cellules et des noyaux. Les mutants gip1gip2 démontrent une diminution de la cohésion des régions centromériques. L’ensemble de nos résultats suggère un rôle des AtGIPs dans un continuum nucléocytoplasmique inédit, la régulation de l'architecture nucléaire et du centromère. / In Arabidopsis, the nuclear envelope is a nucleation center where gamma-tubulin complexes initiate the polymerization of microtubules. Conserved from plants to humans, GIPs/MZT1 proteins were initially discovered as AtGCP3 interacting partners. Our investigations were devoted to the molecular and functional characterization of AtGIPs and their associated proteins at the nucleocytoplasmic interface. We confirmed that AtGIPs are integral components of gamma-tubulin complexes, and showed that they interact with each other, TSA1 (TonSoKu [TSK]-Associating protein 1) and centromeric histone H3 (CenH3). Genetic interactions between GIPs, TSA1 and TSK reveal severe defects at the organism, cellular and nuclear scales. gip1gip2 mutants exhibit a decrease of centromeric and pericentromeric cohesion. Altogether, this is the first evidence for the role of a gamma–tubulin complex component in the structural maintenance of centromeric regions, and in defining nuclear morphology and architecture.