Precommercial thinning of 12-year-old upland oak stump-sprouts in southwestern Virginia using herbicides and manual felling was compared. Objectives were to quantify and compare residual crop-stem growth and treatment costs between treatments and application methods. 2,4-D and triclopyr were applied to competing stump-sprouts using stem injection and low volume basal spray techniques. Kerosene, the carrier for the ester formulations, was also tested for its efficacy properties. One growing season following treatment, total control (percent affected and dead) of chemically treated sprouts averaged 98 percent. Triclopyr basal spray treatment exhibited the highest mortality to treated sprouts totaling 88.6 percent and kerosene had the lowest mortality occurrence of 7.6 percent. On average, translocation was minimal affecting only 58 percent of the crop-stems with less than 10 percent of the crown exhibiting visual symptoms. Mortality of residual crop-stems did not occur and an average of 36 percent exhibited no visual symptoms. Mean height growth for residual crop-stems was significantly greater for manual thinning over unthinned control. Crop-stem height growth was also significantly greater for the contrasts of manual thinning vs chemical thinning and manual thinning vs basal spray treatments. No significant differences occurred for any growth parameter between unthinned control and chemical treatments nor between injection and basal spray treatments. Results of regression-adjusted volume growth (D²H) showed that a 2 percent increase in growth over control was realized for the crop-stems following injection treatments versus a 1 percent increase as a result of the basal treatments. The manual thinning treatment was found to exhibit a significantly greater effect on crop-stem growth compared to chemical treatments averaging a 4 percent volume growth increase. Chemical treatment costs ranged from $36.05/ha to $82.23/ha for 2,4-D injection and triclopyr basal spray treatments, respectively. Manual thinning was found to be the most expensive treatment at $105.30/ha. Injection treatments were significantly more productive and the least expensive. Application costs incurred during the present study were representative of costs incurred by forest industry, private, and public agencies in the southern United States. Overall results of this study suggest that chemical pre-commercial thinning of oak stump-sprouts is a safe, cost effective method of reducing competitionand releasing dominant crop-stems. / Master of Science

Hardwood management has been discouraged because of long rotations, low stumpage values, expensive treatments, and an undependable market (Bechtold and Phillips 1983). Knowledge gaps on how various biological factors affect hardwood growth also exist. Stand improvement methods attempt to shift growth to desirable stems. Three different hardwood stand improvement treatments were evaluated. A pre-commercial chemical thin occurred in a twelve year old stand in 1990. In 1995, two of the treatments showed a significant increase in dbh over the control. However, the 2004 measurements of the stand did not find any significant differences between treatments. A case study examined paired plots throughout the state of Virginia where the crown touching crop tree release method was applied. In both the Piedmont and Ridge and Valley regions of the state an increase in dbh was observed. Finally, a timber stand improvement study examined different treatments in a 60-80 year old stand, but did not result in any significant increases in volume after three years. When oaks are harvested or a major disturbance occurs, the number of oaks that regenerates is less than there were previously (Smith 1992). Therefore, oak regeneration is a problem and methods are needed to facilitate oak regeneration (Smith 1992). One method of oak regeneration was examined. Burning five years after a deferment cut did not result in significantly more stems of oak regeneration. Various reductions in basal area also did not result in an increase in oak regeneration under our 60-80 year old timber stand improvement study. These studies attempt to close knowledge gaps in hardwood management and provide useful information for non-industrial private forest (NIPF) landowners. It is so important to target NIPF landowners because the 350 million acres of timberland they own will play a large part in the future of the United States timber supply (Haynes 2002). / Master of Science

A study was initiated to adapt the REGEN regeneration prediction model to the Appalachians of Virginia and West Virginia. REGEN generates predictions via expert created REGEN knowledge bases (RKBs) that contain competitive rankings and stochastic parameters for selected species and size classes of advance reproduction. We developed RKBs for four site productivity classes (xeric, subxeric, submesic, mesic), and tested two (subxeric and submesic) using field collected inventory data in this study. To test the model we collected data from 48 paired sites which contained a mature stand and an adjacent regenerating stand (clearcut) of similar site productivity harvested within the past 20 years. Across all 48 sites, model predictions were within 5% of measured values on average, and explained 32% (R2 = 0.32) of the variation in species composition in regenerating stands. The species compositions of 41 of the paired stands on the Appalachian Plateau in West Virginia were further analyzed to compare species composition. Species composition was compared between the mature and regenerating stands in the subxeric and submesic site classes. A comparison of the upper canopy (dominant and codominant) species composition in regenerating stands to that of all stems ≥ 1.5 in dbh in the mature stands was conducted as well. Our results suggest that the future species composition of stands regenerating following clearcut harvests will likely differ from previous rotations with mesophytic, shade intolerant species being more numerous. Oaks will likely assume a smaller role as the clearcuts mature, particularly on the submesic sites. / Master of Science

Northern red oak (Quercus rubra l.), a valuable timber in species in the eastern United States, has a delayed growth in the early years of establishment. Freshly harvested northern red oak seed exhibit dormancy that may be broken by stratification or pericarp removal. In this research, germination, seedling growth and adenylate energy metabolism of northern red oak with pericarp removed and intact was measured during stratification (5C) for two consecutive years. Two seed moisture levels (50% and 70% d.w.) during stratification were tested on intact acorns, pericarp removed seeds and acorns intact during stratification and then the pericarp removed prior to germination. Pericarp removal increased germination five-fold at harvest (from 10% to 55%), but almost half the naked seeds were still dormant. There was a deepening of dormancy during the first 4 weeks of stratification; but, stratification for 6 to 8 weeks significantly increased germination and germination rate. Etiolated seedlings grew taller and faster from acorns that had been stratified 8 to 12 weeks than from acorns with no or only 4 weeks of stratification. Significant increases in root, shoot, and axial dry weight and lengths, and root/shoot ratios were observed as early as 14 days after germination. Pericarp removal had no significant effect on seedling growth. Relative growth rates of seedlings were compared by pericarp treatment and stratification time. There were no significant differences in germination or seedling growth between 50% and 70% seed moisture content. Adenylate (ATP, ADP, AMP) levels were measured using the luciferin-luciferase assay). Energy charge (EC) increased during stratification at 2 weeks when germination was low. Thereafter EC decreased before increasing at 8 weeks of stratification. This second rise in EC was concurrent with an increase in germinability. ATP concentrations during the 28 day growth time appeared to be associated with surges in relative growth rates of roots and shoots. / Ph. D.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar o processo de envelhecimento da cachaça em barris de carvalho de espécies e quantidade de usos diferentes. A cachaça foi envelhecida em barris de carvalho americano (Quercus alba) e carvalho europeu (Quercus petraea) de segundo uso, e em barris de extenso uso. A avaliação do processo de envelhecimento foi realizada pela análise dos parâmetros considerados como indicadores de qualidade de destilados, tais como a evolução da concentração de congêneres de maturação e de congêneres voláteis. Durante o envelhecimento amostras foram retiradas e analisadas em intervalo mensal durante 12 meses. Foram determinados os congêneres voláteis por CG (cromatografia gasosa): aldeído acético, acetato de etila, metanol, propanol, iso-butanol, n-butanol, sec-butanol, álcool isoamílico e ácido acético. Os congêneres de maturação, analisados por CLAE (cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência), foram: ácido gálico, furfural, 5-hidroximetilfurfural, coniferaldeído, sinapaldeído, vanilina, siringaldeído, ácido vanílico e ácido siríngico. Foram também determinadas as concentrações de compostos fenólicos totais e glicerol, a intensidade de cor e o teor alcoólico. Testes sensoriais comparativos foram realizados ao final do experimento. A origem da madeira utilizada na fabricação do barril (carvalho francês ou americano), a intensidade do tratamento térmico (queima média ou forte), assim como a quantidade de usos do barril ao longo dos meses tiveram influência direta no produto final. Os barris de segundo uso foram os que mais influenciaram nas concentrações de congêneres, principalmente quanto aos ésteres e furfural. Dentre os barris de segundo uso, a queima forte do carvalho europeu proporcionou maiores concentrações de congêneres. Os barris de extenso uso propiciaram menores concentrações dos compostos voláteis. A espécie e origem da madeira de carvalho, assim como a intensidade do tratamento térmico, influenciaram na modificação das concentrações dos congêneres de maturação, exceto no bloco guaiacil, no qual, as concentrações mantiveram-se semelhantes, inclusive na cachaça envelhecida em barris de extenso uso. Os efeitos sensoriais foram mais acentuados na cachaça envelhecida em barril novo de carvalho. Em cachaças envelhecidas em barris de carvalho de 2° uso e extenso uso, a menor percepção dos atributos dificultou a comparação e diferenciação de seus perfis determinados pela análise sensorial. / The objective of this study is to compare the aging process of cachaça in oak barrels of different species, toastings and quantity of uses. Cachaças was aged in second use barrels of American (Quercus alba) and French oak (Quercus petraea) and compared with barrels of extensive use. The evaluation of the aging process was carried out with analysis of the parameters indicated as distillate quality, the evolution of the maturation congeners and the volatile congeners concentration. During aging, twelve samples were collected and analyzed monthly. The following volatile congeners were analyzed by GC (gas chromatography): acetic aldehyde, ethyl acetate, methanol, propanol, iso-butanol, n-butanol, sec-butanol, isoamyl alcohol and acetic acid. The maturation congeners analyzed by HPLC were gallic acid, furfural, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, coniferaldehyde, synapaldehyde, vanillin, syringaldehyde, vanillic acid and syringic acid. Concentrations of total phenolic compounds and glycerol, color intensity and alcohol content were also measured. Comparative sensory tests were carried out at the end of the experiment. The origin of the woods used in the manufacture of the barrels (French and American oak), the intensity of the heat treatment (medium or strong toast) as well as the number uses of the barrel over the months had a direct influence on the final product. Second-use barrels provided a greater influence on concentration of congeners, mainly esters and furfural. Among the second-use barrels, the high toasted French oak barrel provided higher congeners concentration. The barrels of extensive use provided lower concentrations of the volatile compounds. The species and origin of the oak wood, as well as the intensity of the heat treatment influenced on the concentrations of maturation congener, except for the guaiacyl block, in which, concentrations remained similar, including cachaças aged in barrels of extensive use. The sensorial effects were more accentuated in cachaça aged in new oak barrels. In cachaças aged in oak barrels of second use and extensive use, the lower perception of attributes made it difficult to compare and differentiate their sensorial profiles.

<p>The Vasa ship is not adequately supported. Measurements of the hull show that the ship deforms and rotate towards the port side. In addition, damages on the hull at support areas have been observed. The damages are due to high compressive loads. At damaged zones the support has been removed and the loads are thus transferred to adjacent support stanchions. In order to design an improved support, knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of the material is needed. In particular, radial modulus, strength and deformation mechanisms are of interest. In the present study, the mechanical behaviour of recent oak and oak from Vasa is studied. Furthermore, effects of PEG content, degradation and moisture on the properties of Vasa oak are investigated.</p><p>Oak is characterized by a very abrupt change from earlywood to latewood, where the latewood is much denser than earlywood. Also present in oak are large rays in the radial direction of the wood.</p><p>Small specimens were tested in compression using Digital Speckle Photography (DSP) in order to obtain strain fields of the whole specimen surface. This technique also provided data on failure mechanisms. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) was performed to establish differences in moisture softening.</p><p>In radial compression, modulus and strength of Vasa oak are reduced by 50% compared with recent oak. A significant change of failure mechanism is observed for Vasa oak. In recent oak, failure in radial compression is by continuous folds of rays in the earlywood followed by continued plastic collapse of the earlywood layer. In Vasa oak rays show a more brittle fracture in each earlywood region. DMTA results indicate no effect on moisture softening of Vasa oak from presence of PEG although more work is needed to confirm this. Moisture adsorption for PEG-extracted Vasa oak is not significantly higher than for recent oak below 60% RH, suggesting that the extent of degradation of Vasa oak is limited. Vasa oak containing PEG is much more hygroscopic than PEG-extracted Vasa oak already at 50%. This difference is increasing with increasing relative humidity.</p>

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2003. / Title from title page screen (viewed Oct. 6, 2003). Thesis advisor: Kim L. Jensen. Document formatted into pages (x, 99 p. : col. ill., col. maps). Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 62-66).

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2002. / Title from title page screen (viewed Feb. 26, 2003). Thesis advisor: Sherry Cable. Document formatted into pages (x, 99 p. : 1 ill.). Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 81-85).

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2002. / Title from title page screen (viewed Feb. 26, 2003). Thesis advisor: Paris Lambdin. Document formatted into pages (viii, 87 p. : ill. (some col.), 1 col. map). Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 66-75).

The formation of dense understories in eastern forests has created low light environments that hinder the development of advance oak reproduction. Studies have shown that a midstory removal can enhance these light conditions and promote the development of competitive oak seedlings. Previous studies have been primarily focused on oaks found on productive sites, and there is little knowledge of this treatment’s potential on intermediate sites and the typically associated oak species. This study investigates the seven-year effects of midstory removal on natural and underplanted white (Quercus alba L.) and black oak (Quercus velutina L.) reproduction, as well as competing red maples (Acer rubrum L.), on intermediate sites within the western rim of the Cumberland Plateau. In addition to its effect on stand reproduction, this study also investigates the impact of this treatment on microclimate. Results from this study can provide a look at the long term success of midstory removal on intermediate quality sites and serve as a basis for future oak management in the region.