This work evaluates the current situation in the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council. The main areas of evaluation are the ongoing reforms, the proposed monetary union and the relationship with the United States. As for the reforms, the main focus is the transition from a closed to an open market economy and the mitigation of their oil dependence. Furthermore, the following chapter deals with an analysis of the Optimum Currency Area for the GCC region. Finally, the last chapter is aimed to provide a brief insight into the US-GCC relationship and its prospects in the near future.

Se desarrolló un protocolo adecuado para la obtención de tubérculos in-vitro de Oxalis tuberosa "oca". Las plantas estuvieron inicialmente en el medio de Micropropagación M-10 (Medio básico MS suplementado con vitaminas, myo-inositol, pantetonato de calcio, AG3, ANA y BAP). Después de 5 a 6 semanas se les sustituyó por medios inductores de la tuberización (Medio básico White y Medio básico White-diluido 13 veces suplementados con 8% de sucrosa, vitaminas, myo-inositol y diferentes concentraciones de BAP y CCC) y se incubaron en oscuridad. También se trabajó cortando las puntas al momento de inducir la tuberización. Las diferentes accesiones de Oxalis tuberosa tuvieron comportamientos diferentes ante un mismo medio de cultivo, pudiendo sin embargo encontrarse una tuberización mas uniforme entre 0.1 y 0.25 ppm de BAP suplementados con 200 ppm de CCC pudiendo estar el medio White diluido o no dependiendo de la accesión. Finalmente el corte de puntas resultó ser un buen sistema mecánico para la inducción de la tuberización por permitir un mayor número y peso en los tubérculos. / An adequate protocol was developed to obtain in vitro microtubers of Oxalis tuberosa "oca". At first the plantlets were grown in the micropopagation medium M-10 (MS medium containing vitamins, myo-inositol, pantothenic acid, GA, NAA and BAP). After 5 – 6 weeks the propagation medium was changed by the tuber induction media tested (White medium and 13 times diluted White medium containing both 8 % sucrose, vitamins, myo-inositol and several concentrations of BAP and CCC) and maintained in continuous darkness. It was also tested tuberization response when the apical buds were cutted. Different accessions of Oxalis tuberosa have had different behaviors for the same culture medium. The more uniform response was found in the medium containning BAP between 0.1 and 0.25 ppm supplied with CCC 200 ppm. Depending on the accession The White basic medium can be diluted or not. Finally, the buds excision resulted a good mechanic system to induce the tuberization, giving us higher weight and number of microtubers.

The paper explores the theory of optimum currency areas, outlines its implications for current international monetary order, and applies its conclusions to the European Economic and Monetary Union

När finanskrisen drabbade världen 2008 – 2009 intervenerade många länder på kapitalmarknaderna. Syftet var att rädda inhemska banker och finansiella institutioner från att försättas i konkurs. Länderna ville minska riskerna för att det skulle leda till spridningseffekter inom det övriga finansiella systemet. Många länder förde dessutom en väldigt expansiv finanspolitik i syfte att rädda inhemska arbetstillfällen. Resultatet blev att många länders budgetunderskott och statsskulder började växa lavinartat och eurokrisen var ett faktum. Eurokrisen var ett resultat av att alla EMU:s medlemsländer hade brutit mot reglerna i stabilitets- och tillväxtpakten. EU:s lösning på problemet är att införa finanspakten och ESM vars uppgift är att säkerställa att den ekonomiska stabiliteten upprätthålls i unionen och då främst inom euroområdet.   Uppsatsens syfte är att diskutera om eurokrisen är en faktor som leder till att centralstyrningen inom EU ökar. Frågan som ställs är om den överenskomna finanspakten kommer att innebära att ländernas möjligheter att bestämma över sin egen finanspolitik minskar.   Analysen och diskussionen i uppsatsen kommer fram till att ländernas möjligheter att självständigt bestämma över sin finanspolitik kommer att minska. EU kommer definitivt att få mer makt på det finansiella området. Hur mycket makt som flyttas över från de nationella länderna till EU:s institutioner är däremot i nuläget svårare att bedöma. Slutsatsen är också att eurokrisen tydligt har visat bristerna inom eurosystemet. Det kommer i framtiden att bli nödvändigt att implementera någon form av transfereringssystem eller stabiliseringsmekanism. Syftet är att omfördela ekonomiska resurser om länder drabbas av asymmetriska chocker. Hur ett sådant system ska se ut är däremot svårare att bedöma. ESM kan tolkas som ett första steg i riktningen mot en sådan lösning. Euroobligationer kan också vara en möjlighet när det gäller att stabilisera ekonomin inom euroområdet. Euroobligationer kan även innebära att euron blir en internationellt gångbar reservvaluta jämförbar med den amerikanska dollarn.

Se desarrolló un protocolo adecuado para la obtención de tubérculos in-vitro de Oxalis tuberosa "oca". Las plantas estuvieron inicialmente en el medio de Micropropagación M-10 (Medio básico MS suplementado con vitaminas, myo-inositol, pantetonato de calcio, AG3, ANA y BAP). Después de 5 a 6 semanas se les sustituyó por medios inductores de la tuberización (Medio básico White y Medio básico White-diluido 13 veces suplementados con 8% de sucrosa, vitaminas, myo-inositol y diferentes concentraciones de BAP y CCC) y se incubaron en oscuridad. También se trabajó cortando las puntas al momento de inducir la tuberización. Las diferentes accesiones de Oxalis tuberosa tuvieron comportamientos diferentes ante un mismo medio de cultivo, pudiendo sin embargo encontrarse una tuberización mas uniforme entre 0.1 y 0.25 ppm de BAP suplementados con 200 ppm de CCC pudiendo estar el medio White diluido o no dependiendo de la accesión. Finalmente el corte de puntas resultó ser un buen sistema mecánico para la inducción de la tuberización por permitir un mayor número y peso en los tubérculos. / An adequate protocol was developed to obtain in vitro microtubers of Oxalis tuberosa "oca". At first the plantlets were grown in the micropopagation medium M-10 (MS medium containing vitamins, myo-inositol, pantothenic acid, GA, NAA and BAP). After 5 – 6 weeks the propagation medium was changed by the tuber induction media tested (White medium and 13 times diluted White medium containing both 8 % sucrose, vitamins, myo-inositol and several concentrations of BAP and CCC) and maintained in continuous darkness. It was also tested tuberization response when the apical buds were cutted. Different accessions of Oxalis tuberosa have had different behaviors for the same culture medium. The more uniform response was found in the medium containning BAP between 0.1 and 0.25 ppm supplied with CCC 200 ppm. Depending on the accession The White basic medium can be diluted or not. Finally, the buds excision resulted a good mechanic system to induce the tuberization, giving us higher weight and number of microtubers.

This thesis deals with the monetary union development issues and their role in the process of European Union integration. Following the Maastricht convergence criteria (price stability, foreign exchange rate stability, stability of long-term interest rates, and condition of public finance) is essential for the accession to the European Monetary Union (EMU). The sense of Maastricht criteria is to evaluate the level of economic convergence. The content of the thesis focuses both on the evaluation of the candidates ability to fulfill the Maastricht criteria and to integrate into the monetary regime of EMU, and fulfilment of the criteria by current members of EU. Next part of the thesis follows up the origin and development of a theory of optimum currency area (OCA), which assesses the suitability of using common currency within EMU by means of its criteria. In conclusion of the thesis benefits and expenses of the common currency are compared, and the future development of EMU is mentioned.

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The paper explores the theory of optimum currency areas, outlines its implications for current international monetary order, and applies its conclusions to the European Economic and Monetary Union

A região dos Andes é conhecida por sua grande diversidade genética em vegetais, sobretudo raízes e tubérculos, que apresentam elevado teor de nutrientes. A população rural da região utiliza os tubérculos como alimentos principais do consumo diário, sendo alguns deles a oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina), o olluco (Ullucos tuberosus Caldas) e a mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz e Pavón), os quais apresentam cores e sabores particulares. Neste trabalho tais alimentos e suas respectivas frações amiláceas foram avaliados quanto à composição. O amido foi caracterizado quanto às propriedades físicas, físico-químicas e funcionais. As amostras obtidas em mercado local de Arequipa - Perú apresentaram diferenças significativas no rendimento de extração do amido. Quando observados por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia óptica, os grânulos de amido de oca apresentaram morfologia principalmente elipsoide e oval e comprimentos de até 54,30 µm. Grânulos de amido de olluco com comprimentos de até 32,09 µm apresentaram formatos elipsoide, oval, cônico, em forma de pêra e prismático. Os grânulos de amido de mashua com formas esféricas e ovais truncadas apresentaram os menores comprimentos, até 16,29 µm. O conteúdo de fósforo variou: 0,044% (oca), 0,047% (olluco) e 0,081% (mashua). A porcentagem de amilose foi de 27,60 % (oca), 26,49 % (olluco) e 27,44 % (mashua). O amido de olluco apresentou menor poder de intumescimento, formando géis mais opacos e menos duros. Os três amidos mostraram a mesma estabilidade quando mantidos sob refrigeração e apresentaram elevada sinérese sob temperaturas de congelamento, com variação de 40,28% até 74,42 % para amido de olluco. Os amidos apresentaram fácil cozimento, com elevados picos de viscosidade. Estas baixas temperaturas de gelatinização e a elevada estabilidade durante a refrigeração fazem destes amidos matérias-primas apropriadas para uso em diversos produtos e formulações que requeiram temperaturas brandas de processamento e que prescindam de congelamento. / The Andean region is known for its great genetic diversity in plants, especially roots and tubers, which have a high nutrient content. The rural population on the region consumes them as staple food daily. Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina), olluco (Ullucos tuberosus Caldas) and mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz & Pavón) are the most consumed which are characterized by distinct colors and flavors. In the present work, these foods and their starchy fractions were evaluated in relation to its composition. Starch physical, physical-chemical and functional properties were characterized. Samples obtained from a local market in Arequipa - Peru showed significant differences in starch extraction yield. When observed by scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy, oca starch granules showed morphology mainly ellipsoidal and oval, with sizes up to 54.30 µm. The olluco starch granules had sizes up to 32.09 µm with ellipsoid, oval, conical, pear-shaped and prismatic shapes. Mashua starch granules with spherical and oval truncated shapes showed smaller dimensions up to 16.29 µm. The phosphorus content varied: 0,044% (oca), 0,047% (olluco) and 0,081% (mashua). The percentage of amylose was 27.60 % (oca), 26.49 % (olluco) and 27.44 % (mashua). Olluco starch showed lower swelling power forming gels more opaque and less hardness. The three starches exhibited the same stability when kept under refrigeration and showed higher syneresis under freezing temperatures, with a variation of 40,28 % to 74.42 % for olluco starch. The results showed easy cooking starches with high peak viscosity. These low temperatures of gelatinization and high stability during the refrigeration make these starches suitable for use in various products and formulations that require milder processing temperatures but without freezing.

A região dos Andes é conhecida por sua grande diversidade genética em vegetais, sobretudo raízes e tubérculos, que apresentam elevado teor de nutrientes. A população rural da região utiliza os tubérculos como alimentos principais do consumo diário, sendo alguns deles a oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina), o olluco (Ullucos tuberosus Caldas) e a mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz e Pavón), os quais apresentam cores e sabores particulares. Neste trabalho tais alimentos e suas respectivas frações amiláceas foram avaliados quanto à composição. O amido foi caracterizado quanto às propriedades físicas, físico-químicas e funcionais. As amostras obtidas em mercado local de Arequipa - Perú apresentaram diferenças significativas no rendimento de extração do amido. Quando observados por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e microscopia óptica, os grânulos de amido de oca apresentaram morfologia principalmente elipsoide e oval e comprimentos de até 54,30 µm. Grânulos de amido de olluco com comprimentos de até 32,09 µm apresentaram formatos elipsoide, oval, cônico, em forma de pêra e prismático. Os grânulos de amido de mashua com formas esféricas e ovais truncadas apresentaram os menores comprimentos, até 16,29 µm. O conteúdo de fósforo variou: 0,044% (oca), 0,047% (olluco) e 0,081% (mashua). A porcentagem de amilose foi de 27,60 % (oca), 26,49 % (olluco) e 27,44 % (mashua). O amido de olluco apresentou menor poder de intumescimento, formando géis mais opacos e menos duros. Os três amidos mostraram a mesma estabilidade quando mantidos sob refrigeração e apresentaram elevada sinérese sob temperaturas de congelamento, com variação de 40,28% até 74,42 % para amido de olluco. Os amidos apresentaram fácil cozimento, com elevados picos de viscosidade. Estas baixas temperaturas de gelatinização e a elevada estabilidade durante a refrigeração fazem destes amidos matérias-primas apropriadas para uso em diversos produtos e formulações que requeiram temperaturas brandas de processamento e que prescindam de congelamento. / The Andean region is known for its great genetic diversity in plants, especially roots and tubers, which have a high nutrient content. The rural population on the region consumes them as staple food daily. Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina), olluco (Ullucos tuberosus Caldas) and mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz & Pavón) are the most consumed which are characterized by distinct colors and flavors. In the present work, these foods and their starchy fractions were evaluated in relation to its composition. Starch physical, physical-chemical and functional properties were characterized. Samples obtained from a local market in Arequipa - Peru showed significant differences in starch extraction yield. When observed by scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy, oca starch granules showed morphology mainly ellipsoidal and oval, with sizes up to 54.30 µm. The olluco starch granules had sizes up to 32.09 µm with ellipsoid, oval, conical, pear-shaped and prismatic shapes. Mashua starch granules with spherical and oval truncated shapes showed smaller dimensions up to 16.29 µm. The phosphorus content varied: 0,044% (oca), 0,047% (olluco) and 0,081% (mashua). The percentage of amylose was 27.60 % (oca), 26.49 % (olluco) and 27.44 % (mashua). Olluco starch showed lower swelling power forming gels more opaque and less hardness. The three starches exhibited the same stability when kept under refrigeration and showed higher syneresis under freezing temperatures, with a variation of 40,28 % to 74.42 % for olluco starch. The results showed easy cooking starches with high peak viscosity. These low temperatures of gelatinization and high stability during the refrigeration make these starches suitable for use in various products and formulations that require milder processing temperatures but without freezing.