De flesta forskare inom området är överens om att det finns kopplingar mellan luktsinnet och känslor. Däremot finns det mindre forskning och bevis kring hur människors inre tillstånd påverkar olfaktorisk perception, dvs. uppfattningen av dofter. Föreliggande studie hade avsikt att studera sambandet mellan sinnesstämning och uppskattning av behagliga dofter. Den aktuella sinnesstämningen mättes med hjälp av Mood Adjective Checklist (Sjöberg et.al., 1979), ett tillförlitligt och känsligt instrument. För att mäta doftuppskattning användes fem olika dofter på doftstickor. Dofterna valdes ut systematiskt, testades i förväg och bekräftades som behagliga. Resultaten kunde inte visa något signifikant samband mellan sinnesstämning och doftuppskattning (p = .612). Ingen predicerande effekt i sinnesstämning och i de olika dimensionerna av sinnesstämningen på doftuppskattning kunde påvisas (p varierar mellan .293 och .862). Resultaten kan ha påverkats av metodologiska brister och utformningen av dofttestningsinstrumentet som diskuterats.

O estudo da substantividade de uma composição aromática/fragrância em pele em função do ciclo menstrual é de relevância científica, pois a literatura científica menciona, sem conclusões significativas, que os hormônios sexuais manifestam inúmeros efeitos fisiológicos na pele e de percepção olfativa, principalmente nas fases ovulatória e lútea comparadas às demais fases do ciclo menstrual. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar se os hormônios sexuais influenciam na sensibilidade olfativa e, se as alterações fisiológicas na pele afetam a performance da fragrância durante o ciclo menstrual. Para tanto, foi empregada a avaliação sensorial e determinada a escala de magnitude categórica LMS (escala de magnitude com rótulos) para a quantificação da intensidade de perfume no experimento. O estudo da estabilidade normal da composição aromática definiu a melhor composição para a fase experimental. O estudo clínico foi realizado em quatro fases do ciclo menstrual (menstrual, folicular, ovulatória e lútea) e, cada uma, a intensidade de perfume foi avaliada em 5 tempos experimentais (inicial; 1,5; 3,0; 4,5 e 6h). Em paralelo, foram analisadas as medidas biomecânicas da pele (perda de água transepidérmica, corneometria e sebumetria) e um indivíduo do sexo masculino foi considerado como controle de pele no estudo. As medidas biomecânicas não foram significativas para influenciar na sensiblidade olfativa. A percepção foi maior na fase lútea quando a mulher avaliava sua pele e menor quando avaliava a pele do homem em relação às outras fases. Conclui-se que os hormônios sexuais afetaram a sensibilidade olfativa em diferentes fases do ciclo, porém as alterações fisiológicas provavelmente não interferiram na percepção olfativa e este fato nos orienta para o desenvolvimento de fragrâncias e instiga à pesquisa de matérias-primas aromáticas que influenciam no comportamento da mulher ou até mesmo na atração entre os sexos. / The Substantivity study of the aromatic composition/fragrance on the skin in function of menstrual cycle is the big issue because of the scientific literature says, with no significant conclusions, which the sex hormones demonstrate wide physiologic effects in the skin and in the olfactory perception, particularly, in the ovulatory and luteal phases versus other ones of the menstrual cycle. The aim of this study was to investigate if the sex hormones influence on the olfactory perception and their physiologic effects in the skin might change the fragrance performance during the menstrual cycle. Thus it was employed a sensory evaluation and was defined the LMS scale (labeled magnitude scale) to score the fragrance intensity in the assessment. The stability test defined the best aromatic composition/fragrance to the experiment. The clinical study was conducted in four phases of the menstrual cycle (menstrual, follicular, ovulatory and luteal) and, each one, the perfume intensity was evaluated in 5 experimental times (initial, 1,5h, 3,0h, 4,5h and 6h) in parallel with the bioengineer measurement of the skin (transepidermal water loss, moisturizing and sebum content) and a man was considered a skin control in the experiment. The bioengineer measurement was no significant to influence the olfactory perception; however, the fragrance perception in the luteal phase was higher when the woman evaluated her skin and lower when she evaluated man skin in comparison to the other phases. In summary, the sex hormones influenced the olfactory perception in different phases of the menstrual cycle; however, the skin physiologic effects did not affect the olfactory perception probably and this issue helps to development fragrances and instigates to discover aromatic raw materials that influence woman behavior or even the sex attraction.

Neural representations of odors get associated with other stimuli through experience. Are action potentials the neural representation that directly gets associated with reinforcement during conditioning? In Manduca , I found that odor presentations elicited only one or two spikes at odor onset (and sometimes offset) in each of a small portion of Kenyon cells, a population of neurons known to be crucial for olfactory associative learning. By using a series of odor-taste associative conditioning paradigms with various sucrose presentation timings, I carefully controlled the temporal overlap between Kenyon cell spiking and sucrose reinforcement timing. I found that in paradigms that led to learning, spiking in Kenyon cells ended well before the reinforcement was given. Further, increasing the temporal overlap between Kenyon cell spiking and sucrose reinforcement actually reduced learning efficacy. Therefore, spikes in Kenyon cells are not the neural representation that gets directly reinforced, and Hebbian spike timing--dependent plasticity in Kenyon cells alone cannot underlie this learning. / Two important focuses in neuroscience are to study how animals process sensory stimuli, and how such stimuli get associated with other sensory modalities through experience. Often, sensory stimuli elicit the oscillatory synchronization of neurons in different parts of the brain, and thus may constitute an important stage in sensory processing. Odor-evoked oscillatory synchronization has been observed in a wide variety of animals, including mammals and insects. Despite differences in details of anatomical structure, animals from widely different phyla appear to use similar strategies to encode odors. Here, using the moth Manduca sexta, I examined the factors that cause odor-evoked oscillatory synchronization of olfactory neurons and that determine the frequency of these oscillations. I found that frequency of oscillations decreased from ∼40 Hz to ∼20 Hz during the course of a lengthy odor pulse. This decrease in oscillatory frequency appeared in parallel with a decrease in net olfactory receptor output, suggesting that the intensity of olfactory receptor neuron input to the antennal lobe, the first olfactory relay center, may determine oscillatory frequency. However, I found that changing odor concentration had little effect on oscillatory frequency. Combining the results of recordings made in vivo and computational models, I found that increasing odor concentration recruited additional, but less well-tuned olfactory receptor neurons to respond to the odor. Firing rates of these neurons were tightly constrained by adaptation and saturation. My work established that, in the periphery, odor concentration is mainly encoded by the size of the olfactory receptor neuron population that responded to the odor, whereas oscillatory frequency is determined by the adaptation and saturation of this response. / Ong, Chik Ying Rose. / Advisers: Siu Kai Kong; Mark Stopfer. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 72-04, Section: B, page: . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 132-147). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

O estudo da substantividade de uma composição aromática/fragrância em pele em função do ciclo menstrual é de relevância científica, pois a literatura científica menciona, sem conclusões significativas, que os hormônios sexuais manifestam inúmeros efeitos fisiológicos na pele e de percepção olfativa, principalmente nas fases ovulatória e lútea comparadas às demais fases do ciclo menstrual. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar se os hormônios sexuais influenciam na sensibilidade olfativa e, se as alterações fisiológicas na pele afetam a performance da fragrância durante o ciclo menstrual. Para tanto, foi empregada a avaliação sensorial e determinada a escala de magnitude categórica LMS (escala de magnitude com rótulos) para a quantificação da intensidade de perfume no experimento. O estudo da estabilidade normal da composição aromática definiu a melhor composição para a fase experimental. O estudo clínico foi realizado em quatro fases do ciclo menstrual (menstrual, folicular, ovulatória e lútea) e, cada uma, a intensidade de perfume foi avaliada em 5 tempos experimentais (inicial; 1,5; 3,0; 4,5 e 6h). Em paralelo, foram analisadas as medidas biomecânicas da pele (perda de água transepidérmica, corneometria e sebumetria) e um indivíduo do sexo masculino foi considerado como controle de pele no estudo. As medidas biomecânicas não foram significativas para influenciar na sensiblidade olfativa. A percepção foi maior na fase lútea quando a mulher avaliava sua pele e menor quando avaliava a pele do homem em relação às outras fases. Conclui-se que os hormônios sexuais afetaram a sensibilidade olfativa em diferentes fases do ciclo, porém as alterações fisiológicas provavelmente não interferiram na percepção olfativa e este fato nos orienta para o desenvolvimento de fragrâncias e instiga à pesquisa de matérias-primas aromáticas que influenciam no comportamento da mulher ou até mesmo na atração entre os sexos. / The Substantivity study of the aromatic composition/fragrance on the skin in function of menstrual cycle is the big issue because of the scientific literature says, with no significant conclusions, which the sex hormones demonstrate wide physiologic effects in the skin and in the olfactory perception, particularly, in the ovulatory and luteal phases versus other ones of the menstrual cycle. The aim of this study was to investigate if the sex hormones influence on the olfactory perception and their physiologic effects in the skin might change the fragrance performance during the menstrual cycle. Thus it was employed a sensory evaluation and was defined the LMS scale (labeled magnitude scale) to score the fragrance intensity in the assessment. The stability test defined the best aromatic composition/fragrance to the experiment. The clinical study was conducted in four phases of the menstrual cycle (menstrual, follicular, ovulatory and luteal) and, each one, the perfume intensity was evaluated in 5 experimental times (initial, 1,5h, 3,0h, 4,5h and 6h) in parallel with the bioengineer measurement of the skin (transepidermal water loss, moisturizing and sebum content) and a man was considered a skin control in the experiment. The bioengineer measurement was no significant to influence the olfactory perception; however, the fragrance perception in the luteal phase was higher when the woman evaluated her skin and lower when she evaluated man skin in comparison to the other phases. In summary, the sex hormones influenced the olfactory perception in different phases of the menstrual cycle; however, the skin physiologic effects did not affect the olfactory perception probably and this issue helps to development fragrances and instigates to discover aromatic raw materials that influence woman behavior or even the sex attraction.

INTRODUÇÃO: Dor facial crônica abrange várias condições que podem se apresentar isoladas ou concomitantes, cujas evidências têm apontado para o impacto local e na saúde como um todo. Morbidades odontológicas e sistêmicas podem estar presentes nesses indivíduos e afetar a sensibilidade álgica. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar doentes com dor facial crônica quanto à prevalência e perfil de morbidades odontológicas e sistêmicas, em comparação com indivíduos sem dor facial. MÉTODOS: Cento e sessenta e quatro pacientes do ambulatório de Dor Neuropática Orofacial do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, com idade média de 57,7±15,75 anos, e 133 indivíduos-controles sem queixas de dor, com idade média de 49,83±22,55 anos, foram selecionados. Foram avaliadas as características clínicas e funcionais orofaciais e o histórico médico prévio, sendo utilizado um protocolo de avaliação sensitiva superficial que incluiu as seguintes modalidades: percepção mecânica (táctil e vibratória), percepção térmica (frio e calor), percepção álgica (superficial e profunda), percepção à estimulação elétrica, sensibilidade gustativa (doce, azedo, amargo e salgado) e limiar olfativo. Para a tabulação, os doentes foram divididos em dois subgrupos (dor facial neuropática e dor facial complexa). Os dados foram analisados estatisticamente considerando-se um nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS: Houve maior prevalência de doenças gastrointestinais, respiratórias e psiquiátricas no grupo de dor facial complexa quando comparado aos outros dois grupos estudados (dor facial neuropática e controle) (p < 0,033, p < 0,014 e p < 0,001, respectivamente). A prevalência de ausências dentárias foi maior nos indivíduos com dor neuropática (49,2%) quando comparados ao grupo de dor complexa (37,9%) e aos controles (30,1%). Estes últimos apresentaram mais cáries do que os doentes com dor, enquanto que alterações mandibulares foram mais comuns nos grupos de doentes (p < 0,050). Os doentes com dor neuropática apresentaram mais bruxismo (p=0,005), e os diversos tratamentos odontológicos, fisioterápicos e cirúrgicos se associaram a alterações nos limiares sensitivos. Quanto às morbidades sistêmicas, houve maior prevalência de doenças cardiovasculares na maioria dos grupos de doentes, sendo que tanto estas quanto os fármacos utilizados para seu tratamento também estavam relacionados principalmente a anormalidades sensitivas somestésicas e olfativas. CONCLUSÕES: A maior prevalência de morbidades em doentes com dor facial complexa parece relacionar-se com um caráter sindrômico e funcional dessas condições, sendo que a presença de morbidades se associou com a dor e com alterações sensitivas. O grupo de dor facial neuropática apresentou maior comprometimento funcional mandibular e perdas dentárias, sendo que estas se associaram a morbidades sistêmicas / INTRODUCTION: Chronic facial pain is a term that includes several conditions that might be present isolated or concomitant. The evidences have suggested an impact in general health and dental or systemic comorbidities can be found in these patients affecting their sensory pain perception. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate patients with chronic facial pain about the prevalence and profile of general and local oral conditions in comparison to subjects with no facial pain complaint. METHODS: Hundred-sixty-four patients from the Neuropathic Facial Pain Clinic of Hospital das Clínicas of the Medical School of the University of São Paulo, with mean age of 57.7±15.75 years old, and 133 control subjects with no pain complaints, with mean age of 49.83±22.55 years old, were selected. The evaluation protocol included: clinical and functional orofacial characteristics, previous medical history and sensory evaluation of the following modalities: mechanical (tactile and vibratory), thermal (cold and warm), pain (superficial and deep), electric stimulation, gustative (sweet, sour, bitter and salty) and olfactory thresholds. The patients were divided into two subgroups (neuropathic facial pain and complex facial pain). Data were statistically analyzed considering a significance level of 5%. RESULTS: The prevalence of gastrointestinal, respiratory and psychiatric diseases was higher in the group of patients with complex facial pain compared to the other groups (p < 0.033, p < 0.014 e p < 0.001, respectively). The frequency of dental absences was higher in patients with neuropathic pain (49,2%) when compared to complex facial pain (37,9%) and controls (30,1%). The controls had more decays that the patients, while mandibular masticatory abnormalities were more frequent among the patients (p < 0.50). Neuropathic facial patients had more bruxism (p=0.005) and the common dental, physiotherapic and surgical treatments were associated with abnormalities in sensory thresholds. Cardiovascular disease was the most common morbidity, and systemic conditions as well as the medication to treat them were associated with abnormalities in somatosensory and olfactory thresholds, mainly. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of morbidities in patients with complex facial pain seems to be associated with a syndromic and functional aspect of these conditions; the frequency of systemic morbidities and pain were associated with sensory abnormalities. Patients with neuropathic facial pain had more mandibular function complications and teeth losses, which were associated with systemic morbidities

INTRODUÇÃO: Dor facial crônica abrange várias condições que podem se apresentar isoladas ou concomitantes, cujas evidências têm apontado para o impacto local e na saúde como um todo. Morbidades odontológicas e sistêmicas podem estar presentes nesses indivíduos e afetar a sensibilidade álgica. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar doentes com dor facial crônica quanto à prevalência e perfil de morbidades odontológicas e sistêmicas, em comparação com indivíduos sem dor facial. MÉTODOS: Cento e sessenta e quatro pacientes do ambulatório de Dor Neuropática Orofacial do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, com idade média de 57,7±15,75 anos, e 133 indivíduos-controles sem queixas de dor, com idade média de 49,83±22,55 anos, foram selecionados. Foram avaliadas as características clínicas e funcionais orofaciais e o histórico médico prévio, sendo utilizado um protocolo de avaliação sensitiva superficial que incluiu as seguintes modalidades: percepção mecânica (táctil e vibratória), percepção térmica (frio e calor), percepção álgica (superficial e profunda), percepção à estimulação elétrica, sensibilidade gustativa (doce, azedo, amargo e salgado) e limiar olfativo. Para a tabulação, os doentes foram divididos em dois subgrupos (dor facial neuropática e dor facial complexa). Os dados foram analisados estatisticamente considerando-se um nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS: Houve maior prevalência de doenças gastrointestinais, respiratórias e psiquiátricas no grupo de dor facial complexa quando comparado aos outros dois grupos estudados (dor facial neuropática e controle) (p < 0,033, p < 0,014 e p < 0,001, respectivamente). A prevalência de ausências dentárias foi maior nos indivíduos com dor neuropática (49,2%) quando comparados ao grupo de dor complexa (37,9%) e aos controles (30,1%). Estes últimos apresentaram mais cáries do que os doentes com dor, enquanto que alterações mandibulares foram mais comuns nos grupos de doentes (p < 0,050). Os doentes com dor neuropática apresentaram mais bruxismo (p=0,005), e os diversos tratamentos odontológicos, fisioterápicos e cirúrgicos se associaram a alterações nos limiares sensitivos. Quanto às morbidades sistêmicas, houve maior prevalência de doenças cardiovasculares na maioria dos grupos de doentes, sendo que tanto estas quanto os fármacos utilizados para seu tratamento também estavam relacionados principalmente a anormalidades sensitivas somestésicas e olfativas. CONCLUSÕES: A maior prevalência de morbidades em doentes com dor facial complexa parece relacionar-se com um caráter sindrômico e funcional dessas condições, sendo que a presença de morbidades se associou com a dor e com alterações sensitivas. O grupo de dor facial neuropática apresentou maior comprometimento funcional mandibular e perdas dentárias, sendo que estas se associaram a morbidades sistêmicas / INTRODUCTION: Chronic facial pain is a term that includes several conditions that might be present isolated or concomitant. The evidences have suggested an impact in general health and dental or systemic comorbidities can be found in these patients affecting their sensory pain perception. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate patients with chronic facial pain about the prevalence and profile of general and local oral conditions in comparison to subjects with no facial pain complaint. METHODS: Hundred-sixty-four patients from the Neuropathic Facial Pain Clinic of Hospital das Clínicas of the Medical School of the University of São Paulo, with mean age of 57.7±15.75 years old, and 133 control subjects with no pain complaints, with mean age of 49.83±22.55 years old, were selected. The evaluation protocol included: clinical and functional orofacial characteristics, previous medical history and sensory evaluation of the following modalities: mechanical (tactile and vibratory), thermal (cold and warm), pain (superficial and deep), electric stimulation, gustative (sweet, sour, bitter and salty) and olfactory thresholds. The patients were divided into two subgroups (neuropathic facial pain and complex facial pain). Data were statistically analyzed considering a significance level of 5%. RESULTS: The prevalence of gastrointestinal, respiratory and psychiatric diseases was higher in the group of patients with complex facial pain compared to the other groups (p < 0.033, p < 0.014 e p < 0.001, respectively). The frequency of dental absences was higher in patients with neuropathic pain (49,2%) when compared to complex facial pain (37,9%) and controls (30,1%). The controls had more decays that the patients, while mandibular masticatory abnormalities were more frequent among the patients (p < 0.50). Neuropathic facial patients had more bruxism (p=0.005) and the common dental, physiotherapic and surgical treatments were associated with abnormalities in sensory thresholds. Cardiovascular disease was the most common morbidity, and systemic conditions as well as the medication to treat them were associated with abnormalities in somatosensory and olfactory thresholds, mainly. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of morbidities in patients with complex facial pain seems to be associated with a syndromic and functional aspect of these conditions; the frequency of systemic morbidities and pain were associated with sensory abnormalities. Patients with neuropathic facial pain had more mandibular function complications and teeth losses, which were associated with systemic morbidities

With covid-19 affecting people's ability to smell, it might be of interest to find multimodal solutions, where other senses could assist someone with an impaired sense of smell to identify an odor. This area of research lacks data since there has not been many studies on this. Moreover, there are studies that tried to find a connection between sound and smell in other contexts. The goal of this study was to find if it is possible to communicate an odor, with the help of foley sound, to someone with an impaired sense of smell. This required answers to questions regarding whether people, with and without a changed sense of smell, can improve their odor identification with the help of sound and if foley is an effective method for it. This was tested by first collecting sound associations to odors, as well as cultural associations. The data were analyzed to find common themes to choose the sounds that would be used. The participants in the study were asked to make free identifications after being presented with odor pens together with additional stimuli cues. The experiment included tests with an associated color, a matching foley sound, a matching soundscape, an incongruent color and an incongruent foley sound. The results showed that sound in general has a positive impact on someone's identification capabilities, which were measured by counting the amount of right answers on each test. The odors coffee, fish and leather had foley sound that greatly increased the amount of correct answers whilst the foley sound to lemon, rose and peppermint had less of an impact. People with an imparied sense of smell were affected similarly to the different stimuli as people without an impairment. Since identification of odors are dependent on prior experiences, some odors could be harder or easier to identify. In order to create an auditory icon for an odor there needs to be strong collective associations for it to be efficient in relaying information and not being distracting. / Covid-19 har haft en negativ effekt på människors förmåga att känna lukt, och därmed finns det ett intresse av att undersöka och hitta multimodala lösningar där andra sinnen kan hjälpa att identifiera en lukt. Det har inget större omfång av liknande forskning inom detta område. Däremot finns det studier som försökt hitta en koppling mellan ljud och lukt i andra kontexter. Målet med denna studie var att ta reda på ifall ljud kunde hjälpa att kommunicera en lukt för någon med försämrat luktsinne. Detta innebar att besvara frågor huruvida foleyljud kan förbättra människors luktidentifieringsförmåga, både för dem med nedsatt luktförmåga och oförändrat luktsinne. Det innebar också att testa ifall foleyljud är effektivare än andra typer av ljud. Forskningsfrågorna testades genom att först samla in ljud associationer till olika lukter, samt kulturella associationer. Datan analyserades för att hitta gemensamma teman att göra ljud av. Deltagarna i studien ombads skriva fria identifieringar efter att ha presenterats med doftpennor, samtidigt som de utsattes för ett annat stimulus. De stimulikombinationer som testades var doft med associerad färg, doft med ett tillhörande foleyljud, doft med en tillhörande ljudbild, samt versioner med inkongruent färg och inkongruent foleyljud. Resultatet visar att ljud har en positiv påverkan på personers identifieringsförmåga, vilket mättes med hur många som skrev rätt doft på varje test. Lukterna kaffe, fisk och läder hade foleyljud som ökade antalet rätta svar medan foleyljud till lukterna citron, ros och pepparmynta hade en mindre påverkan. Personer med nedsatt luktsinne påverkades på liknande sätt av de olika testerna som folk utan påverkan. Då luktperception påverkas av tidigare erfarenheter kan olika lukter vara svårare eller lättare att identifiera. För att lukt ska kunna sonifieras behövs starka kollektiva associationer som är tillräckligt kända för att lättare förmedla information och inte distrahera lyssnaren.

Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Pedagogická fakulta, Katedra speciální pedagogiky, DIPLOMOVÁ PRÁCE Comparing the level of olfactory perception among persons with congenital or acquired severe visual impairment Autor: Tereza Kopsová, Vedoucí práce: Mgr. Pavlína Šumníková, Ph.D., Praha 2010 ANNOTATION: The work deals with identifying the level of olfactory perception among people with severe visual impairment. The aim is to compare the function of olfactory discrimination and olfactory threshold sensitivity among persons with congenital or acquired visual handicap. The theoretical section presents the basic anatomical and physiological characteristics of the olfactory system, the list of disorders of smell and olfactory testing methods in clinical practice, and a brief account of visual impairments. The empirical investigation is carried out using standardized tests, olfactory discrimination function is measured by a test of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), olfactory perception threshold using the Smell Threshold Test (STT). The thesis describes in detail both the methods and characteristics of groups of test subjects. In the analytical part it focuses on the comparison of test results among persons with congenital or acquired severe visual impairment.

Society would tell us that women have a superior sense of smell compared to men, but studies on innate olfactory ability have failed to verify these results. Perhaps women outperform men on some tests of olfactory ability due to the effect of a societal bias on perception, instead. The goal of this study was to determine if the presence of a sex-specific societal bias could affect an individual’s olfactory perception by influencing an individual to both rate an olfactory stimulus in line with the presented bias while also perceiving a noticeable difference according to the bias’s expectations. During both biased and unbiased conditions, 32 adults (women, n =16) were asked to smell and rate a set of 20 flasks all containing the same concentration of butanol. The biased scores were the same for both sexes with only the presentation of the bias changing. Participants were also asked to answer a follow-up survey tasked at determining why they rated to two conditions differently. The results showed that participants tended to rate in line with the sex-specific bias for measures of intensity. No difference for intensity scores were observed between the sexes. All 32 participants marked on the follow-up survey that they rated differently between conditions, with the majority of them indicating that they did perceive the biased condition as more intense. The results from this experiment provide support for the hypothesis that the presence of a societal bias can potentially affect how an individual perceives an olfactory stimulus. / Samhället säger oss att kvinnor har ett bättre luktsinne jämfört med män, men studier på medfödd luktförmåga har misslyckats att verifiera detta. Det är möjligt att kvinnor presterar bättre än män i vissa studier om luktförmåga på grund av fördomar som ändrar deras uppfattning om deras luktförmåga. Målet med denna studie var att avgöra om närvaron av en könsspecifik bias kunde påverka en individs luktuppfattning genom att påverka en individ att skatta en lukt i linje med en bias och samtidigt uppleva en märkvärd skillnad enligt förväntningar från biasen. Under två omgångar, en med och en utan bias, ombads 32 vuxna (kvinnor, n = 16) att lukta och skatta en samling av 20 flaskor där alla innehöll samma koncentration av n-butanol. Biasen var samma för män och kvinnor, där endast presentationen ändrades. Deltagarna ombads också fylla i en uppföljningsenkät med syftet att avgöra varför de skattade de två omgångarna olika. Resultaten visade på att deltagarna tenderade att skatta i linje med den könsspecifika biasen för skattningar av intensitet. Ingen skillnad i värden för intensitet observerades mellan könen. Alla 32 deltagare markerade på uppföljningsenkäten att de skattade olika mellan de två omgångarna, och att majoriteten indikerade att de upplevde lukterna med bias som mer intensiva. Resultaten från detta experiment ger stöd för hypotesen att närvaron av en bias potentiellt kan påverka hur en individ upplever en lukt.

<p>Funkcija nosa povezana je sa različitim anatomskim, fiziolo&scaron;kim i emocionalnim faktorima. Postoji mnogo teorija koje su poku&scaron;ale da objasne efekat ženskih polnih hormona (estrogena i progesterona) na fiziologiju nosa, ali sam mehanizam njihovog dejstva jo&scaron; uvek ostaje izazov za mnoge istraživače. Prethodno je opisano da ženski polni hormoni mogu da izazovu nazalnu opstrukciju, povećavajući ekspresiju histaminskih H1 receptora i menjajući koncentraciju neurotransmitera, &scaron;to dovodi do edema nosne sluznice i modifikacije nazalnog otpora. Kada je reč o mirisnoj funkciji na malom broju ispitanika i u različito dizajniranim studijama je pokazano da je u fazi ovulacije mirisni prag značajno niži u odnosu na folikularnu i luteinsku fazu, međutim ne postoje podaci o identifikaciji i diskriminaciji mirisa u menstrualnom ciklusu. Nizak nivo estrogena prouzrokovan fiziolo&scaron;kom atrofijom jajnika u postmenopauzi može dovesti do hiposmije ili čak anosmije, &scaron;to predstavlja jo&scaron; jedan dokaz o osetljivosti nazalne sluznice na estrogen.&nbsp; Cilj ovog istraživanja je bio da se ispita uticaj ženskih polnih hormona na respiratornu i mirisnu funkciju nosa u menstrualnom ciklusu i postmenopauzi. Istraživanje je u celosti prospektivno, sprovedeno je na Zavodu za fiziologiju, Medicinskog fakulteta, Univerziteta u Novom Sadu. Uključeno je 204 osoba ženskog pola koje su bile podeljene u dve grupe. Prvu grupu su činile 103 devojke uzrasta 23,126 &plusmn; 4,597 godina u reproduktivnom periodu sa regularnim menstrualnim ciklusom i 101 žena prosečnog uzrasta 60,069 &plusmn; 5,570 u postmenopauzi. Respiratorna i mirisna funkcija nosa procenjene su uz pomoć odgovarajućih standaradizovanih objektivnih i subjektivnih metoda. Funkcija donjih disajnih puteva ispitana je uz pomoć spirometrije. Kod žena u reproduktivnom periodu testiranje se vr&scaron;ilo u fazi ovulacije i lutealnoj fazi menstrualnog ciklusa, a kod ispitanica u postmenopauzi jednom. Nakon određivanja prvog plodnog dana ispitanice su uz pomoć standardizovanih urin - tračica za određivanje pika luteinizirajućeg hormona u urinu utvrđivale momenat ovulacije, dok se drugo testiranje u lutealnoj fazi vr&scaron;ilo sedam dana nakon prvog. Respiratorna funkcija nosa je značajno lo&scaron;ija u fazi ovulacije u odnosu na progesteronsku fazu menstrualnog ciklusa,ali se značajno ne razlikuje između žena u reproduktivnom periodu i žena u postmenopauzi. Subjektivni osećaj nazalne opstrukcije značajno se ne razlikuje u različitim fazama menstrualnog ciklusa, kao ni između testiranih populacija zdravih žena. Sposobnost identifikacije mirisa je statistički značajno slabija, a subjektivni osećaj intenziteta mirisa izraženiji u fazi ovulacije u odnosu na luteinsku fazu menstrualnog ciklusa. Međutim, sposobnost identifikacije mirisa značajno je lo&scaron;ija kod žena u postmenopauzi u odnosu na obe faze menstrualnog ciklusa. Reaktivnost nosne sluznice značajno je veća u fazi ovulacije u odnosu na lutealnu fazu menstrualnog ciklusa, ali se ista ne razlikuje između žena u reproduktivnom period i žena u postmenopauzi. Respiratorna i mirisna funkcije nosa u testiranim populacijama zdravih žena nisu značajno povezane.</p> / <p>The nasal function is associated with various anatomical, physiological and emotional factors. There are many theories that have tried to explain the effect of female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) on the nasal physiology, but the mechanism still remains unknown for many researchers. It has been previously described that female sex hormones can cause nasal obstruction by increasing the expression of histamine H1 receptors and altering the concentration of neurotransmitters, which leads to edema of the nasal mucosa and modification of nasal resistance. When it comes to olfaction on a small number of subjects and in differently designed studies, it was shown that in the ovulatory phase the olfactory threshold is significantly lower compared to the follicular and luteal phase, however there are no data on the identification and discrimination of odors in the menstrual cycle. Low estrogen levels caused by physiological atrophy of the ovaries in postmenopause can lead to hyposmia or even anosmia, which is another proof of the sensitivity of the nasal mucosa to estrogen.&nbsp; The aim of this study was to examine the effect of female sex hormones on respiratory and olfactory function of the nose in the menstrual cycle and postmenopause. The research is prospective and it was conducted at the Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad. It included 204 females who were divided into two groups. The first group consisted of 103 women aged 23.126 &plusmn; 4.597 years in the reproductive period with a regular menstrual cycle and 101 women with an average age of 60.069 &plusmn; 5.570 in the postmenopausal period. The respiratory and olfactory function of the nose were assessed using appropriate standardized objective and subjective methods. The lower airway function was examined using spirometry. Young women in reproductive period were tested twice, in the ovulatory and luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, and the postmenopausal women were tested only once. After menstrual bleeding the participans used standardized urine strips consecutively day by day to determine ovulation (the peak of the luteinizing hormone (LH) in plasma which pointed out the estrogen plasma peak). The test was positive if two horizontal pink streaks appeared on the strip 5 to 10 minutes after the contact with the urine. One pink streak indicates a correctly performed test, while the second streak appears only if there is an LH peak. Within 24 hours of confirmed LH peak, the subjects were tested for the first time. The second measurement was performed in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (the progesterone plasma peak) seven days after the first one.&nbsp; The nasal respiratory function is significantly worse in the ovulatory phase compared to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, but it does not differ significantly between women in the reproductive period and postmenopausal women. The subjective sense of the nasal obstruction does not differ significantly in different phases of the menstrual cycle, as well as between tested populations of healthy women. The odor identification ability is statistically significant weaker and the subjective sense of odor intensity is more pronounced in the ovulatory phase compared to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. However, the ability to identify odors is significantly worse in postmenopausal women compared to both phases of the menstrual cycle. The reactivity of the nasal mucosa is significantly higher in the ovulatory phase compared to the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, but it does not differ between women in the reproductive period and postmenopausal women. The respiratory and olfactory nasal functions in these tested populations are not significantly corelated.</p>