<p>Nondirective counseling is to listen, support, and advise, without directing a client’s course of action. It has been influenced by humanistic theories in the tradition of Carl Rogers, but techniques used in nondirective counseling are common in many forms of psychological counseling and treatment today. There are, however, few conclusions as to what the results of training nondirective counseling are. The purpose of the present thesis is to examine effects of nondirective counseling training, and to analyze how such effects are moderated by the characteristics of clients. Three quasi-experimental or experimental studies (Paper I­III) are presented. In Paper I, trained and untrained insurance company employees were compared on their Reflective listening (RL; a subskill of nondirective counseling) skills before and after a training program. Training increased RL, and the skills were transferred to authentic settings. Trained employees were, however, not evaluated differently than untrained. In Paper II, psychology students were compared before and after RL training of three time lengths. All training times increased skills equally, but clients disclosed more information to those with longer training, the students remembered the information better, and external judges perceived the therapeutic relationship as better, especially if the judge was socially competent. In Paper III, two nondirective counseling techniques, RL and open-ended questions, were evaluated by judges who differed in social skills and cognitive ability. RL received positive ratings, whereas open-ended questions did not, and the judges’ ratings were moderated by their social skills and cognitive ability. In the Discussion, it is proposed that even short training has effects, that trained skills generalize to authentic contexts, but that the usefulness of the examined subskills of nondirective counseling depends on client characteristics such as social skills and cognitive ability.</p>

Nondirective counseling is to listen, support, and advise, without directing a client’s course of action. It has been influenced by humanistic theories in the tradition of Carl Rogers, but techniques used in nondirective counseling are common in many forms of psychological counseling and treatment today. There are, however, few conclusions as to what the results of training nondirective counseling are. The purpose of the present thesis is to examine effects of nondirective counseling training, and to analyze how such effects are moderated by the characteristics of clients. Three quasi-experimental or experimental studies (Paper I­III) are presented. In Paper I, trained and untrained insurance company employees were compared on their Reflective listening (RL; a subskill of nondirective counseling) skills before and after a training program. Training increased RL, and the skills were transferred to authentic settings. Trained employees were, however, not evaluated differently than untrained. In Paper II, psychology students were compared before and after RL training of three time lengths. All training times increased skills equally, but clients disclosed more information to those with longer training, the students remembered the information better, and external judges perceived the therapeutic relationship as better, especially if the judge was socially competent. In Paper III, two nondirective counseling techniques, RL and open-ended questions, were evaluated by judges who differed in social skills and cognitive ability. RL received positive ratings, whereas open-ended questions did not, and the judges’ ratings were moderated by their social skills and cognitive ability. In the Discussion, it is proposed that even short training has effects, that trained skills generalize to authentic contexts, but that the usefulness of the examined subskills of nondirective counseling depends on client characteristics such as social skills and cognitive ability.

国立情報学研究所で電子化したコンテンツを使用している。

本研究的目的，是在實作一個以開放式問答題的作答方式為基礎的線上輔助學習系統，藉以提升評量及學習的效果。我們選定的問題領域在地球科學，以極光的發生為例，將問題所涉及的觀念進一步拆解細分成許多小觀念，建立階層化使用者知識模型，以評估學生於各個觀念的分別表現。學生於作答時，系統會即時分析學生的答案，以評估學生在各觀念的表現，並在適當的時機提供回饋，嘗試協助學生思考原本未能答好的觀念。我們以不同的回饋時機及回饋內容為獨立變因，嘗試瞭解對使用者答題表現的影響。我們也以個案分析的方式將學生的對於系統學習態度分類，藉以瞭解不同類型學生對此類系統的接受程度。我們認為此系統可以提供學生作答歷程予教學者進行分析，用以找出學生缺漏的觀念，進而協助提升教學效果。 / The purpose of this research is to use an open-ended based on-line learning system to improve the effects of evaluation and learning. We set the question domain at Earth Science. Taking the occurrence of polar lights, we divide the related concept into many small concepts, and build the hierarchical user knowledge model to evaluate student’s reactions to each concept. While students take the test, the system will analyze the answers to evaluate the students, and provide feedbacks timely to help the student think over the missing concept. Taking the different feedback timing and feedbacks as independent factors, we try to understand the influence to the users’ performance. By using case study, we classify the students’ learning attitudes to understand the different types of students’ acceptance of this system. We think that this system can provide student’s answering process to teachers for analyzing. By using this, teachers can find out students’ missing concept and to provide teaching effectiveness.

政治知識之於民主社會有其重要性，在政治學界中與政治知識相關的研究產出相當豐富，研究者利用政治知識此一變數進行相關研究前，對於題目如何選定、選項如何提供、題型的差異都是研究者需要去關注的重點，而本文主要的研究目的即是聚焦於討論何種題型更適合用來測量民眾的政治知識。 目前國內測量政治知識的問卷題型較為常見的為開放題與選擇題題型，在這兩類題型的討論上，前者被認為會低估受訪者政治知識程度，後者的測量結果則被質疑提供猜題空間導致高估了受訪者的政治知識程度，然而目前國內外卻缺乏足夠的實證研究來證明這兩個題型的適用性。 本文採用具有實驗設計性質的二手資料，利用前後測的方式讓受測者填答相同題目不同題型的問卷，藉此檢視各種知識程度的受測者在面對不同題型時是否會產生回應模式上的差異。本研究發現，開放題會使得較高政治知識程度的受訪者被低估，選擇題反而能準確測量出此類受訪者的知識程度。為了進一步證實受訪者在偏難的題目上所增加的猜題比例並非是來自於盲猜，本文採用多項機率單元模型來檢視受訪者於於選擇題選擇各個答項的機率。研究發現，儘管選擇題無法避免受訪者猜題，但受訪者並非是盲猜，反而會根據其具有的知識依據來答題，故政治知識程度高的受訪者能採用猜題方式答對題目，政治知識低的受訪者無法利用猜題方式猜中答案。整體而言，選擇題比起開放題更適合用來測量民眾的政治知識。 / Political knowledge plays an important role in the democratic society, and therefore there has been much research on political knowledge in the discipline of political science. To study political knowledge, political scientists have to understand the way of questions and options presented, and also the differences between a variety of question formats. This paper aims to analyze which question format is better for measuring the political knowledge of the public. The open-ended and multiple-choice items are both common formats for measuring political knowledge in Taiwan. The open-ended question is always considered to underestimate the respondents’ level of political knowledge, while the multiple-choice format is thought of overestimating the levels of political knowledge for providing the respondents with opportunity to guess. However, a strong evidence to decide the most suitable format for the measurement of political knowledge is still lacking. This paper uses the secondary data which is collected by a pretest-posttest questionnaire to examine whether guessing behavior will emerge or not when the respondents facing the same question with different formats. This research finds that open-ended questions underestimate the respondents’ knowledge levels who has higher level of political knowledge originally, but the multiple-choice questions can estimate the levels more accurately. To further confirm that the higher guess proportions in the more difficult questions are not resulted from the blind guessing, the study examines the probabilities of options selected by Multinomial Probit Model. The research finds that though the respondents may have guess more in multiple-choice question, however, they tend to answer the questions based on their knowledge instead of blind guessing. Therefore, the respondents who have higher levels of political knowledge can guess correctly, while those who have lower levels of political knowledge cannot. In summary, the multiple-choice questions are more suitable to measure people’s political knowledge.