Globalisation, localisation and tourism are processes that are closely interconnected. They relate to historical mobilities and non-mobilities of humans, ideas and capital that impact on environment, economy, culture, politics and technology. Yet, these impacts on local tourism destinations are not well researched. Small destinations are not researched in relation to the impact of globalisation and tourism overtime. The thesis develops an historical understanding of globalisation, localisation and tourism within the context of the Otago Peninsula in Dunedin, New Zealand. It portrays the �glocalisation� processes, the specific mix of local and global forces that shaped the Otago Peninsula and created the basis for the current conditions, especially for tourism. The research on the Otago Peninsula clearly identifies different stages of mobilities to the place, generally following a similar pattern to other places in New Zealand settled in the latest phase of colonialism. The first settlers, the Polynesians, were followed by white explorers, sealers and whalers at the beginning of the 19th century who exploited a local resource that was valuable to international markets. After the over-exploitation of the resource white settlers arrived to �conquer� nature and to improve on their living conditions in a new country. They provided the basis for the following mobilities by developing or facilitating a local, national, regional and international infrastructure. Towards the end of the 19th century the major European migration had ended. The next major mobility movement was recreationists from the close urban centre of Dunedin who used the infrastructure on the Otago Peninsula at weekends, as time, money and technology limited mobilities to places further away. From the 1920s onwards, when these limitations were reduced by, for example, a better infrastructure and new technological developments such as the car and more disposable income and time, New Zealanders started to more widely discover their own country. Finally, international travellers started to arrive in the 1960s after the main obstacle, the distance and time needed to travel to New Zealand and the Otago Peninsula, was reduced by technological development, especially airplanes. During all of these phases of mobility, the Otago Peninsula became increasingly interconnected with other places on the globe, creating the conditions for tourism. In this study, within the context of the phase model of mobilities, a variety of research methods were used to assess the impact of globalisation, localisation and tourism on the Otago Peninsula. These methods include literature, newspaper, local promotional materials and photographic images analysis, as well as participant observation and historical interviews. The research clearly highlights the changes to the Otago Peninsula created by historical events that happened as a consequence of human mobility. Internal and external conditions at different geographical scales, ranging from the local to the global, changed the economy, the environment, culture, politics and the use of technology on the Otago Peninsula. The place was (and still is) constantly glocalised. Consequently, international tourism, as one of the more recent forces, has to be managed within this historical framework of stretched social relations, the intensification of flows, increasing global interactions and the development of global infrastructure and networks.

The geologist James Hector (1834-1907) was, by any measure, the most important and influential scientist in nineteenth century New Zealand. In the mid 1860s, he became the first Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey and the Colonial Museum. Thereafter he ran the Colonial Laboratory, set up the Meteorological Service and the Wellington Botanical Gardens and was responsible for the establishment of the New Zealand Institute, acting as its manager and editor of its Transactions and Proceedings for more than 30 years. This work explores the formative years of his career from his early years in Scotland, his experiences with the Palliser Expedition in Canada, and pivotally, his first four years in New Zealand as the first Otago Provincial Geologist. By the time of James Hector�s entry as a medical student to Edinburgh University in 1852, he had already developed a strong interest in natural history, particularly geology. Although he graduated M.D. from Edinburgh in 1856, that course of study served only as a means of access to the natural sciences. Hector�s interest and training in geology developed at an opportune time, when there was increasing demand for geologists to explore the expanding industrial British Empire for coal and other mineral raw materials. Hector�s reputation in geology in Edinburgh brought him to the attention of that most influential British geologist, Sir Roderick Murchison, whose recommendation led to his appointment to the British North American Expedition of 1857 (the Palliser Expedition). Hector was acknowledged, on several counts, as a major contributor to the success of the expedition. When the Otago Provincial Government in New Zealand requested advice on the appointment of a geologist for the province, Murchison predictably proposed Hector. Having reviewed and assessed his work in North America, this thesis deals with the arrival of Hector as Otago Provincial Geologist in Dunedin during the prosperity of the gold rush of the early 1860s. For the first nine months he explored the central and eastern areas of the Province (Chapter 2) and the following year led the exploration of the West Coast, where there was potential for coal, gold and timber-and reputedly copper-and the prospect of providing a commercial route to Melbourne. The two month long expedition up the Matukituki Valley preceded the exploration by ship of the West Coast of the South Island as far north as Martins Bay. The latter became a major triumph on the strength of the contemporary perception of a route between Queenstown and Martins Bay potentially opening up a direct contact between Dunedin and Melbourne. From mid-1864, Hector�s life was governed by the organisation of the International Exhibition, which opened in Dunedin in January 1865. In that context, he travelled to seek support and participation from the other provinces of New Zealand, a political and administrative commission which he combined with geological exploration. After the closure of the successful Exhibition in May 1865 and subsequent to the conclusion of his appointment on 1st April 1865, Hector left Otago in August to take up the newly created post of Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey in Wellington. The parting was not administratively smooth and relations between Hector and the Otago Provincial Government were strained by the lack of a final, definitive, report on the Geology of Otago. An overview of Hector�s geology, specifically his interest in coal and gold, and the evolution of his views on the vexed question of the role of glaciers as geomorphologic agents is provided. James Hector was a man of versatile ability and strong leadership. His scientific skills as a field geologist and the administrative abilities, developed during his explorations in British North America and southern New Zealand, led ultimately to his long and successful career as New Zealand�s chief scientist at a formative time in its history.

Summary: Although a good deal of information is available about the Maoris of New Zealand, concerning their origin, customs, and culture, yet statistical data regarding their actual numbers at any time before 1857 are comparatively rare. It is a fact that the Maori population in any given locality was a fluctuating one and that their distribution in general was very variable and this constitutes a formidable difficulty in making any estimate of their numbers before the first cenus. A second obstacle is the difficulty of travel which faced the early European explorers. For example, when Cook visited New Zealand, he made an estimate of the population but it was largely conjectural as Cook saw the natives at only those places he touched around the coast, and had in fact no means of estimating what proportion of the total population those communities formed. Actually the Maoris were not confined to the coastline, and therefore Cook�s estimate cannot be regarded as based on adequate data. An evaluation of his estimate will be made later--Chapter 1.

Mineralised shear zones in Otago are often truncated by regional low-angle faults, which juxtapose schist of different metamorphic grade. The Footwall Fault and the Hyde-Macraes Shear Zone are one example for this kind of tectonic setting, and are the subject to this study. Although, the mechanisms for the development of the mineralised thrust-origin shear zones are well studied, the relationship to the truncating faults is still poorly understood. Currently, the truncating low-angle faults are assumed to be related to crustal extension, starting in the early Cretaceous after the schist passed the ductile-brittle transition. This study presents new kinematic data for the Footwall Fault, suggesting development of normal sense movement under ductile conditions due to an abundant shear band cleavage in the footwall, which dynamically recrystallises quartz grains. However, brittle high-angle normal faults truncating these shear bands indicate either reactivation of normal sense movement after passing the ductile-brittle transition or continuous normal sense movement during the transition. Furthermore, this study presents a model, which suggests a regional scale rolling hinge development, consisting of an array of individual low-angle normal faults along the boundary of the textural zone change from TZ IV to TZIII, and strike-parallel high-angle faults at the NE margin of the Otago schist.

The deformed Permian Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt (DMOB) forms the basement of the Dun Mountain-Maitai terrane and is traceable through the entire length of New Zealand. The DMOB contains a variably serpentinised mantle portion and a crustal portion containing gabbros, dolerites, cross cutting dikes and extrusives, together they are similar to oceanic crust. The initial crustal portion, however, is atypical when compared to other ophiolites, being thin and lacking a sheeted dike complex, but has well spaced inclined intrusive sheets and sills. At least four post-Permian deformation periods affect the DMOB; collision and rotation during emplacement of the DMOB on the Gondwana margin, compression during Mesozoic orogenies, extensional deformation during the Gondwana break-up and transpressive deformation related to the modern plate boundary through New Zealand. Structural work in the Northern Bryneira Range focused on well preserved outcrops to investigate crustal growth and contemporaneous deformation during the Permian. Structural evidence of Permian deformation was determined by examination of pseudostratigraphy, structures constrainable to the Permian, and the geometric relationships with the overlying Maitai sedimentary sequence. Crosscutting by intrusive phases was used to determine a chronological order of crustal growth and deformation episodes. It was concluded that all deformation was extensional and that two major phases of magmatism were separated by a period of deformation and were followed by ongoing syn-sedimentary deformation during the deposition of the Maitai Group. After removal of Mesozoic rotation, the resulting orientations of paleo-horizontal markers and diverse orientations of intrusive sheets were analysed. Two hypothesises were tested to assess the origin of inclined intrusive sheets: a) that the diverse orientations were the result of tectonic rotation coeval with the intrusion of dikes. b) that primary orientations of the sheets had been diverse. Results show that the sheets were intruded with diverse orientations, probably related to variation in the principle horizontal stress over time. Further rotation of the assemblage of sheets occurred during the last stages of magmatism and during the subsequent period of sedimentation. The last stage probably relates to large scale normal faulting during the development of the sedimentary basin. iii

Orogenic gold mineralisation in schist terranes with few or no contemporaneous igneous intrusions is poorly understood. It is proposed in this thesis that the structural evolution of such terranes controls the generation of hydrothermal fluid pathways and thus the location of orogenic mineral deposits. Gold mineralisation in the Otago Schist, New Zealand and the Klondike Schist, Canada occurred in the latter phases of greenschist facies metamorphism as well as after metamorphism during Paleozoic-Mesozoic exhumation. In Otago, gold mineralisation occurred at a number of different times and structural levels as the schist belt was exhumed and rocks were brought up through the brittle-ductile transition. In Klondike Schist, gold mineralisation occurred in relatively brittle rocks after a period of regional compression and crustal shortening caused by the stacking of thrust sheets. Gold mineralisation in both schist belts is not associated with any coeval igneous activity. The earliest stage of gold mineralisation in the Otago Schist occurred in the Jurassic when mineralising fluids were progressively focussed into late metamorphic ductile shear zones such as the Hyde-Macraes Shear Zone (HMSZ), east Otago and Rise and Shine Shear Zone (RSSZ), central Otago. Both of these gold-bearing mineralised zones occur along mappable structural discontinuities or boundaries that separate structurally, metamorphically and lithologically distinct blocks. The HMSZ occurs in the hangingwall of an underlying low angle normal fault that juxtaposes mineralised lower greenschist facies rocks on to unmineralised upper greenschist facies rock. The RSSZ occurs in the footwall of an overlying low angle normal fault that juxtaposes unmineralised lower greenschist facies rocks on to mineralised upper greenschist facies rock. The two shear zones did not form as part of a single homogeneous structure. There are several other prospective late metamorphic boundaries that are different from later brittle faults that disrupt the schist. Late metamorphic gold mineralisation is characterised by both ductile and brittle structures, foliation-parallel shears, disseminated gold with sulphides in deformed schist and minor steeply dipping extensional veins. This style of mineralisation is the most prospective but can be subtle in areas without quartz veins. Hydrothermally altered rocks are enriched in gold, arsenic, tungsten and sulphur with minor enrichment of bismuth, antimony, mercury and molybdenum. Disseminated mineralisation in the HMSZ is associated with hydrothermal graphite however there is no hydrothermal graphite in the RSSZ. The next stage of gold mineralisation occurred in the Cretaceous during post-metamorphic exhumation of the schist belt and is characterised by steeply dipping, fault-controlled quartz veins, silicified breccias and negligible wall rock alteration. Most post-metamorphic veins strike northwest such as the ~25 km long Taieri river gold vein swarm, but there are other stibnite and gold mineralised structures that strike northeast (e.g., Manuherikia Fault system) and east-west (e.g., Old Man Range vein systems). The latest recognised stage of gold mineralisation is controlled by structures related to the initiation of the Alpine Fault in the Miocene and is characterised by steeply dipping quartz veins with abundant ankeritic carbonate in veins and ankeritic carbonate with gold in altered rocks. Hydrothermally altered rocks are enriched in arsenic, carbon dioxide and sulphur with minor enrichment of antimony. Gold-bearing veins at Bullendale, central Otago are of this type and are associated with a broad alteration zone. Gold-silver and gold-silver-mercury alloys occur in both Caples and Torlesse Terranes of the Otago Schist. Almost all mercury-bearing gold occurs in east Otago vein systems and mercury-free gold occurs in central and northwest Otago veins, irrespective of host terrane. There is no relationship between depth of vein emplacement and mercury content of gold. The Klondike Schist was emplaced as a series of stacked thrust slices in the Jurassic and thrust-related fabrics are preserved in all thrust slices. Strongly deformed carbonaceous schist horizons are spatially associated with thrust faults and graphite within these units is concentrated along spaced cleavage surfaces. Kink folding is best developed in the uppermost slices of Klondike Schist and overprints thrust-related fabrics. Gold-bearing veins formed in extension fractures controlled principally by pre-existing weaknesses such as kink fold axial surfaces. Normal faults correlated with a period of Late Cretaceous regional extension crosscut kink folds and offset gold mineralised veins. The main stage of mineralisation occurred after major regional compression and thrust stacking and before Cretaceous normal faulting. Gold-bearing veins are widely dispersed throughout the uppermost slices of Klondike Schist and are considered to be a sufficient source for Klondike gold placer deposits. Disseminated gold with pyrite is associated with gold-bearing veins in some Klondike Schist and this disseminated mineralisation expands the exploration target for these veins. Disseminated gold with pyrite, without quartz veins, occurs in some schist lithologies and is associated with chlorite alteration and weak silicification. The arsenic content of gold-mineralised Klondike Schist is much lower than mineralised Otago Schist and background concentrations of arsenic are much lower in Klondike Schist as well. No shear-related mineralisation has been discovered in Klondike Schist but due to its relatively poor exposure, this belt remains prospective for this style of mineralisation.

Studies were conducted to broadly describe and understand the sediment benthos of a shallow-water coastal area (Aramoana Beach - Heyward Point - Blueskin Bay) near the entrance to Otago Harbour, a system largely representative for southeastern New Zealand. Benthic assemblages were examined in relation to gradients of wave exposure and disturbance, sediment type and bathymetry, and dredge-spoil disposal. Sediment and macrofaunal surveys in autumn and spring 2003 found little change in sediment texture gradients from historical studies and a lack of vertical stratification. Macrobenthic samples from spring produced significantly higher abundances of three numerically dominant phyla (Arthropoda, Annelida, and Mollusca) and higher taxon richness compared to autumn. Within water depths of 6-30 m, abundance, richness, and diversity increased with depth. Multivariate analyses identified similar assemblages among deeper sites, despite sediment textural differences, whereas distinct assemblages were found in the shallow portions of the three areas. Meiofaunal abundance patterns did not reflect those of macrofauna, possibly indicating greater vertical penetration of sediments in these hydrodynamic environments. Several new kinorhynch taxa were found. In a field manipulation, part of the Aramoana dredge-spoil dumpground was protected from spoil disposal for an extended period followed by experimental dumping of sandy and muddy spoil. Macrofaunal samples were collected before dumping and at nine sites < 119 d after disposal. Water velocities at the sediment-water interface were compared to a local sediment disturbance model. Dumpground samples were depauperate in individuals and taxa compared to an area protected from dumping for > 180 d. A drop in abundance and a dissimilar community coincided with muddy spoil, but fine sediments were dispersed within 26 d and macrofaunal assemblages recovered to the pre-existing state. Sandy spoil, while not altering native sediment textures, had a more prolonged impact due to transplantation of macrofauna from the dredged area that persisted for < 41 d after disposal. Side-scan sonar mapping indicated that the disposal footprint model used approximated the extent of sandy spoil impacts well, while local conditions spread muddy sediments beyond the initial impact site. A novel sediment profile imaging device was constructed that has many advantages over existing devices for spoil mound studies and habitat mapping: it is smaller, can be manually deployed from small boats, is cheaper, and can be modified to work in almost any soft sediment. Studies of one dominant taxon, the gastropod Zethalia zelandica, showed it was better able to survive sand burial than mud burial, did not vary in overall activity through a range of 5-14� C, and contributed a large proportion of biomass of its community. The spoil disposal strategy used does not appear as environmentally neutral as originally thought. Only muds are effectively dispersed whereas coarser sediments accumulate, affecting physical and biological benthic processes of a wider area. Two mitigation strategies were evaluated using a heuristic model. Reducing the disposal area and spreading mud disposal events over a longer time span may be an effective interim strategy. Overall, the studies will help guide management of the area.

The vegetation communities that existed in the semi-arid intermontane basins and gorges of Central Otago prior to human settlement ~750 years B.P. are poorly understood. This is because of a lack of fossil evidence and complex restructuring by anthropogenic factors, especially increased fire frequency, and more recently mammalian grazing. There is also little information regarding the effect of the lost fauna on maintaining and structuring presettlement communities, both in Central Otago and throughout the eastern South Island dryland zone. This study aims to provide a clearer understanding of the functioning of pre-settlement ecosystems in dryland Central Otago, particularly the role of the largest vertebrate herbivores, the moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes), and to explore the implications of the extinct fauna for land conservation management across New Zealand. Late Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation communities of the Central Otago lowlands were reconstructed from plant macrofossils, including seeds, leaves, and wood, excavated from rockshelter, cave, and swamp deposits throughout the region. The macrofossils represent three main vegetation types: late Pleistocene to mid (late?) Holocene basin floor wetland herb associations, Olearia-shrublands surrounding these wetlands, and mid to late Holocene open scrubland and woodland in gorges and on low altitude slopes, dominated by filiramulate Olearia, Coprosma, and Corokia, with abundant lianes (Muehlenbeckia spp. and Rubus spp.) and understorey herbs. Many native tree and shrub species that are presently widespread in the Central Otago lowlands were rare or absent prior to anthropogenic fires (e.g. Discaria toumatou, Kunzea ericoides, Leptospermum scoparium). Other tree and shrub species once present are now extinct in the region (e.g. Coprosma obconica, Plagianthus regius, Pseudopanax ferox). The loss of these indigenous woody vegetation communities was a major factor contributing to the extirpation of many small bird species, and undoubtedly also reptile and invertebrate species, from the region. Plant macrofossils from rockshelters included remains of bird nests, identifiable by desiccated feathers and eggshell amongst them. These macrofossils include the first described plant remains from the nests of moa, which were constructed from a shallow bed of twigs of locally available shrubs and lianes. Many of the twigs are 25-30 mm in length and show evidence of having been clipped by moa bills. Desiccated coprolites, mostly of moa, but also specimens attributed to Finsch�s duck (Chenonetta finschi) and red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae), were recovered from rockshelter excavations. Moa species associated with a sample of coprolites were identified using ancient DNA analysis, and plant macrofossils from these were examined, together with previously unexamined moa gizzard content samples excavated from mires in the eastern South Island dryland zone. The results indicate that, in addition to previously reported browsing, upland moa (Megalapteryx didinus) and heavy-footed moa (Pachyornis elephantopus) also functioned as grazers, and seeds in their coprolites are dominantly of low shrubs and ground-cover herbs. Of particular interest was the higher than expected frequency of seeds from the currently rare and threatened 'spring annual' herbs; Ceratocephala pungens and Myosurus minimus subsp. novae-zelandiae (Ranunculaceae), suggesting further research on potential ecological relationships between moa and these plants would be worthwhile. The results of this study have provided a baseline for future conservation and restoration projects in the Central Otago lowlands.

Cadmium in the ocean has a nutrient-like cycling pattern: with biological uptake at the surface, subsequent sinking in particulate form and then regeneration as dissolved species in deeper waters. Many measurements have been made over time of the ratio of the concentrations of dissolved Cd to those of PO₄ (Cd/PO₄) in the world ocean and this has become one of the best relationships documented between a trace metal and a nutrient. Combined with the measurements of the Cd/Ca ratio in foraminifera, the Cd/PO₄ ratio has been used to reconstruct the oceanographic circulation patterns that existed during past glacial periods and hence provides information on past climate changes. In the present study Cd/PO₄ ratios of the Southern Indian Ocean in surface and deep waters were investigated. The slopes of the relationships between Cd and PO₄ concentrations in waters of this region are high compared to the global correlations, and lie between those reported for other parts of the Southern Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. In surface waters of the Southern Indian Ocean, Cd/PO₄ ratios decrease from regions exhibiting high nutrient-low chlorophyll (HNLC) characteristic in the south to oligotrophic waters further north. It is also found that particulate Cd plays an important role in regulating the high Cd/PO₄ ratios reported in waters south of the Polar Front. Very low Cd/PO₄ ratios were measured in waters associated with the Subtropical Front southeast of New Zealand compared to other Southern Ocean and global oceanic waters. Seasonal variations in the Cd/PO₄ ratios measured for these waters strongly suggest they are associated with a significant biological uptake of dissolved Cd particularly during the phytoplankton growth season in summer. Dissolved Fe concentrations in the Southern Indian Ocean and seasonal variations of Fe in waters off the Otago Coast (southeast of New Zealand) suggest that Fe may stimulate phytoplankton growth and this might result in lower Cd/PO₄ ratios in surface waters through enhanced Cd uptake relative to PO₄ by the phytoplankton. However there is no distinct relationship between dissolved Fe concentrations and the dissolved Cd/PO₄ ratios measured in these surface waters. This finding is in disagreement with the recent 2006 hypothesis put forward by J.T. Cullen, which proposed that waters exhibiting low dissolved Cd/PO₄ ratios were associated with the HNLC regions. From a consideration of the potential Zn concentrations calculated from Si concentration measurements reported for these waters, it would appear that Zn may play a more important role than Fe in regulating Cd/PO₄ ratios in these waters. Measurements of dissolved and total Cd concentrations relative to those of PO₄ were also undertaken in the Otago Harbour and immediate surrounding coastal waters. These exhibited higher Cd concentrations and higher Cd/PO₄ ratios than open ocean waters further off the Otago Coast. The particulate Cd concentrations showed a negative correlation with Cd concentrations measured in cockle species (Austrovenus stuchburyi) collected in the harbour, suggesting that particulate Cd is not the source of Cd measured in the tissue of this species. The concentrations of Cd and other trace metals were also measured in samples of green mussel (Perna canaliculus), ribbed mussel (Aulacomya atra maoriana) and oyster (Saccostrea cucullata) collected from Otago Harbour and possible correlations explored between these concentrations and other parameters such as the shellfish condition indices and environmental gradients in the harbour. In summary, measurements of dissolved and particulate Cd concentrations in the water column can provide unique information on a number of processes occurring in the global marine environment.

This thesis investigates the development of medical research at the Otago Medical School in Dunedin, New Zealand under Sir Charles Hercus, Dean from 1937-1958. It also explores his interest and participation in research from his student days and the years before becoming Dean, as well as the influence of the First World War on his career. The study draws upon unpublished material in New Zealand archives and a collection of student projects investigating public health issues. Hercus, as Professor of Public Health and Bacteriology incorporated these projects into the curriculum in the early 1920s. The thesis uses many original papers published in scientific and medical journals by Hercus and his colleagues at the School. Building on a base of archival material including contemporary newspaper accounts, which have lately become available on the Papers Past website, this thesis draws together the individual disease studies undertaken by other thesis writers to give an account of Hercus’s achievements in fostering medical research. A key finding of this thesis is that Hercus was instrumental in building up the research capability of the School. He accomplished this through his own investigations and by helping to establish the New Zealand Medical Research Council. The thesis illustrates the multitude of studies that Hercus undertook personally or facilitated others to pursue, beyond the elimination of endemic goitre, for which he perhaps is best known. Another outcome of this study is an understanding of the difficult path that scientists faced in the early years of the twentieth century in New Zealand if they wished to carry out research. This thesis follows the origins of the Department of Scientific Research in the 1920s and the frequent collaboration Hercus made with scientists outside of the School. It will also demonstrate Hercus’s compassion and foresight in employing several Jewish refugee doctors as researchers at the School, who brought expertise into the research programmes. The era was one of great interest in improving the health and wellbeing of a generation affected by wars and deprivation caused by them. A key finding of this thesis is that researchers at the School took steps to mitigate these through making New Zealand more self-sufficient in foodstuffs and to improve the national diet. As well, Hercus lobbied for the establishment of a School of Physical Education within the university to improve the physical fitness of the population.