Os fotodetectores infravermelhos baseados em pontos quânticos (Quantum-dot Infrared Photodetectors, QDIPs) surgiram recentemente como uma nova tecnologia para a detecção de radiação infravermelha. Comparados com fotodetectores mais convencionais baseados em poços quânticos (Quantum-well Infrared Photodetectors, QWIPs), as suas vantagens se originam no confinamento tridimensional de portadores e incluem a sensibilidade intrínseca à incidência normal de luz, um maior tempo de vida dos portadores fotoexcitados e uma baixa corrente de escuro, que devem permitir o funcionamento dos dispositivos acima das temperaturas criogênicas. No presente trabalho, a técnica de epitaxia por feixe molecular (Molecular-Beam Epitaxy - MBE) foi usada para crescer várias amostras de QDIPs de InAs/GaAs com o objetivo de estudar a inuência dos parâmetros estruturais destes dispositivos. Após o crescimento, as amostras foram processadas em pequenas mesas quadradas por técnicas de litografia convencional e, então, caracterizadas. As propriedades ópticas e eletrônicas dos dispositivos foram verificadas para temperaturas a partir de 10 K. Com o objetivo de realizar medidas eletrônicas de alta qualidade, janelas de Ge e cabos com conectores de baixo ruído para baixa temperatura foram empregados. As curvas de corrente de escuro, as curvas de responsividade com corpo negro (fotocorrente), as medições do ruído com uma analisador de sinais e as respostas espectrais por FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) forneceram um conjunto completo de informações sobre os dispositivos. As figuras de mérito dos nossos melhores dispositivos permitiram também, determinar a probabilidade de captura e o ganho fotocondutivo. Com o intuito de compreender a relação entre as dimensões físicas dos pontos quânticos e as características de funcionamento dos QDIPs, desenvolveu-se um cálculo dos estados eletrônicos de da função de onda de um elétron confinado em um ponto quântico de InxGa1-xAs em formato de lente, envolvido em uma matriz de GaAs, com massas efetivas dependentes da posição. Esse modelo leva em conta o efeito da tensão assim como o gradiente de In dentro do ponto quântico, resultante do forte efeito de segregação presente em um sistema de InxGa1-xAs/GaAs. Diferentes perfis de segregação foram testados com o nosso modelo teórico com vista a proporcionar o melhor ajuste os nossos dados experimentais. / Quantum-dot Infrared Photodetectors (QDIPs) recently emerged as a new technology for detecting infrared radiation. Compared to more conventional photodetectors based on quantum wells (QWIPs), their advantages originate from the three-dimensional confinement of carriers and include an intrinsic sensitivity to normal incidence of light, a longer lifetime of the photoexcited carriers and a lower dark current which should hopefully allow their operation close to room temperature. In the present work, molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) was used to grow several InAs/GaAs QDIP samples in order to analyse the influence the structural properties of such devices. After the growth, the samples were processed into small squared mesas by conventional lithography techniques and fully characterized. The optical and electrical properties of the devices were checked as a function of temperature using Ge optical windows and all the connectors and low-temperature/low-noise cables needed to perform high quality low-level electrical measurements. Dark-current curves, Responsivity (photocurrent) data with a black body, noise measurements with a signal analyzer and spectral responses by FTIR provided a full set of information about the devices. The figures of merit of our best devices allowed us also to determine the capture probability and the photoconductive gain. In order to understand the relationship between the physical dimensions of the quantum dots and the operating characteristics of the QDIPs, we developed a position-dependent effective-mass calculation of the bound energy levels and wave function of the electrons confined in lensshaped InxGa1-xAs quantum dots embedded in GaAs, taking into account the strain as well as the In gradient inside the quantum dots which is due to the strong In segregation and intermixing present in the InxGa1-xAs/GaAs system. Different In profiles inside the quantum dots were tested with our new theoretical model in order to provide the best _t to our experimental data.

<p>U ovoj doktorskoj disertaciji dat je predlog nove metode za merenje talasne dužine monohromatske svetlosti pomoću spektralno osetljivih optičkih komponenti. Princip rada predložene metode se zasniva na kombinovanju spektralnih osetljivosti fiber-optičke račve i dva različita fotodetektora.<br />Izvršena je implementacija i karakterizacija senzorskog sistema za merenje talasne dužine monohromatske svetlosti. U eksperimentalnoj postavci korišćena je 2&times;2 fiber-optička račva, germanijumska (Ge) fotodioda i indijum-galijum-arsenid (InGaAs) fotodioda. Postignuta je linearnost sa faktorom korelacije R2=0.99942 i merna rezolucija od 17 pm u opsegu talasnih dužina svetlosti od 1575 do 1615 nm (L-opseg). U istom opsegu, dobijena je merna greška od približno &plusmn;0.2 nm i ponovljivost od &plusmn;0.16 nm. Ispitani su uticaji promena temperature, snage optičkog izvora i šuma na karakteristike senzorskog sistema.</p> / <p>In this thesis, a new method for measurement of monohromatic light<br />wavelength by using wavelength-dependent optical components is proposed.<br />The principle of operation of the proposed method is based on combining<br />spectral sensitivities of fiber-optic coupler and two different photodetectors.<br />Sensor system for measurement of monochromatic light wavelength is<br />implemented and characterized. Experimental setup consists of 2&times;2 fiberoptic<br />coupler, germanium (Ge) photodiode and indium-gallium-arsenide<br />(InGaAs) photodiode. Excellent linearity (R2=0.99942) and measurement<br />resolution of 17 pm are achieved in measurement range 1575-1615 nm (Lband).<br />In the same measurement range, measurement error of approximately<br />&plusmn;0.2 nm and repeatibility of &plusmn;0.16 nm are obtained. The influence of<br />temperature, optical source power and noise on sensor system characteristics<br />is investigated.</p>

This thesis is focused on the study of the detection of electromagnetic radiation using monocrystalline perovskites. Theoretical part deals with basic principles of detections and possible applications of hybrid perovskite crystals in the field of ultraviolet and visible spectrum detection. Parameters of the recently published perovskite photodetectors are also presented. Experimental part describes synthesis, structural and optical properties of MAPbBr3 single crystals and electrical characterization of the Au/MAPbBr3/Au photodetector. Photodetector parameters (responsivity, external quantum efficiency and specific detectivity) are calculated based on the spectral and switching (on/off) current responses.

As the demand for energy increases, competition for a sustainable alternative to non-renewable energy resources has resulted in the growth of the photovoltaic industry. Although most photovoltaic technologies are based on crystalline silicon, thin film technologies have been developed with the expectation of generating a comparably high-performing product with lower processing costs. These materials have demonstrated sufficiently high optoelectronic performance to enable commercialization but concerns such as material scarcity limit terawatt level power production.<div><br></div><div>In the continuous pursuit of earth abundant solar absorber materials appropriate for thin film technologies, enargite Cu3AsS4 has been identified as a promising material due to its ideal direct band gap, stability, and high absorption. Recent efforts have demonstrated this class of copper chalcogenides exhibits band gap tunability and has solution processing capabilities for potentially scalable manufacturing. Furthermore, recent first-principles calculations of enargite Cu3AsS4 have hypothesized this material may have high carrier mobility and defect-tolerant optoelectronic properties, which further support investigation into this material. <br></div><div><br></div><div>In this dissertation, a novel reactive deposition processing route has been developed which has produced dense, single-phase enargite thin films. A champion device efficiency of 0.54% was achieved following a post deposition etching procedure on these films, which demonstrates the density and observable secondary phases were not limiting to initial nanoparticle-based device performances. Together with recent modeling efforts, the non-ideal band alignment with both the back contact and diode junction is concluded to be the primary limiting factor for high efficiency devices. <br></div><div><br></div><div>As this technology contains arsenic, concerns have been raised about its potential carcinogenicity and toxicity. Similar concerns were raised during the development of cadmium telluride technology, but these concerns have been mitigated through careful life cycle analyses and identifying strategies for responsible life cycle management. Therefore, a life cycle analysis and two risk assessments have been completed on Cu3AsS4 systems. Although emissions of arsenic and its contributions to life cycle impacts are expected to be low due to the small quantity required, hot spots have been identified to reduce waste and emissions. Reduction strategies for this material system are found to be applicable to other PV systems and include minimizing molybdenum sputter waste, reusing and recycling balance of system components, and investigating low-energy processing routes on thin substrates. This work serves to establish a basis on which the potential environmental implications of this thin film technology are understood. <br></div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation will serve as a guide toward the technical and environmental development of Cu3AsS4 thin films. Having a life cycle perspective during the systematic development of a technology will enable sustainable engineering. Furthermore, the processing and characterization methods detailed herein are expected to be generally applicable to other copper chalcogenide systems. <br></div>

Atomically thin 2D layered semiconductor materials such as Transition Metal Di-Chalcogenides (TMDCs) have great potential for use as flexible, ultra-thin photovoltaic materials in solar cells due to their favorable photon absorption and electronic transport properties. In this dissertation, the electronic properties, such as band structure and bandgap, and optical absorption properties of a TMDC known as Tungsten Disulfide (WS2) were obtained from Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations to design conventional and unconventional solar cells. Using these properties, a 1 μm thick heterojunction solar cell based on monolayer and bulk WS2 together with amorphous silicon (a-Si) was modeled using numerical calculations and simulations. The maximum efficiency of this cell is 23.3% with Voc = 0.84 V and Jsc = 33.5 mA/cm2 under the AM1.5G terrestrial solar spectrum. Next, a similar but even thinner solar cell with a thickness of 200 nm, together with a light trapping structure and an anti-reflection coating layer, was modeled under the AM0 space solar spectrum; similar device performance efficiencies around 21-23% were obtained. The performance of these solar cell models is comparable to many commercial cells in both terrestrial and space photovoltaics. As conventional photovoltaics approach the Shockley-Queisser limit, the need for unconventional materials and approaches has become more apparent. Hybrid alloys of TMDCs exhibit tunable direct bandgaps and significant dipole moments. Dark state protection induced by dipole-dipole interactions forms new bright and dark states in the conduction band that reduce radiative recombination and enhance photon-to-electron conversion, leading to significantly higher photocurrents. In our work, current enhancement of up to 35% has been demonstrated by modeling dark state protection in a solar cell composed of Tungsten Diselenide (WSe2) and Tungsten Sulfo-Selenide (WSeS), with the potential to exceed the Shockley-Queisser limit under ideal conditions.

[pt] Dispositivos opto-eletrônicos são elementos semicondutores que convertem radiações eletromagnéticas em corrente elétrica, e vice e versa. Os fotodetectores são dispositivos desse tipo, os quais possuem grande relevância na atualidade, devido a suas diversas aplicações. As pesquisas atuais se concentram no estudo de fotodetectores à base de poços quânticos para operar no infravermelho médio (2-20 m), mais especificamente em super-redes. No presente trabalho foi desenvolvido um fotodetector de duas cores baseado em super-redes assimétricas. O fotodetector construído possui uma rede com duas sessões. A primeira sessão tem cinco poços quânticos e cinco barreiras com 2 nm e 3.5 nm de espessura, respectivamente. A segunda sessão possui cinco poços quânticos e cinco barreiras de 2 nm e 7 nm de espessura, respectivamente. Entre as seções existe um poço quântico de 2.5 nm. O material que forma os poços quânticos é de InGaAs e o material das barreiras é de AlInAs. Esse dispositivo foi capaz de operar como um fotodetector de duas cores operando no modo fotovoltaico detectando radiações de 309 meV e 415 meV. O dispositivo foi capaz de operar em altas temperaturas. A temperatura máxima de operação foi de 245 K. Além disso, ao se aplicar tensões no dispositivo, é possível selecionar a radiação a ser detectada pelo fotodetector. Sendo elas 309 meV ou 415 meV. / [en] Opto-electronic devices are semiconductor elements that convert electromagnetic radiation in electric current. Photodetectors are devices of this type, which are the main relevant ones today due to their diverse applications. Current research focuses on the study of photodetectors based on quantum wells for operation in the medium infrared (2-20 m), more specifically with superlattices. In the present work a photodetector of two cores based on asymmetric superlattice was developed. The built-in photodetector had a superlattice with two sessions The first session had five quantum wells and five barriers with 2 nm and 3.5 nm of thickness, respectively. The second session had five quantum wells and five barriers of 2 nm and 7 nm thick, respectively. Between the sessions there is a 2.5 nm quantum well. The material that formed the quantum wells was InGaAs and the material of the barriers was AlInAs. This device was able to operate as a dual color photodetector operating in the photovoltaic mode detecting radiation of 309 meV and 415 meV. The device was able to operate at high temperatures. The maximum operating temperature was 245 K. In addition, when applying voltages to the device, it is possible to select the detection energy of the photodetector :309 meV or 415 meV.

<p>A glass-clad, slow-light photonic-crystal waveguide is proposed as a solution to sub-bandgap light detection in silicon photonic circuits. Such detection in silicon is perceived as a challenge owing to silicon's indirect band gap and transparency to 1550nm wavelengths, yet is essential for achieving low-cost, high-yield integration with today's microelectronics industry. Photonic crystals can be engineered in such a way as to enhance light-matter interaction over a specific bandwidth via the reduction of the group velocity of the propagating wave (i.e. the slowing of light). The interaction enhanced for light detection in the present work is electron-hole pair generation at defect sites. The intrinsic electric field of a p-i-n junction enables light detection by separating the electron-hole pairs as a form of measurable current. The photonic-crystal waveguides are designed to have bandwidths in the proximity of a wavelength of 1550nm. Refractive indices of over 80 near the photonic-crystal waveguide's Brillouin zone boundary are measured using Fourier transform spectral interferometry and are found to correspond to numerical simulations. Defect-induced propagation loss was seen to scale with group index, from 400dB/cm at a group index of 8 to 1200dB/cm at a group index of 88. Scaling was sublinear, which is believed to be due to the spreading of modal volume at large group index values. Photodetectors were measured to have responsivities as high as 34mA/W near the photonic-crystal waveguide's Brillouin zone boundary for a reverse bias of 20V and a remarkably short detector length of 80um. The fabrication of each device is fully CMOS-compatible for the sake of cost-effective integration with silicon microelectronics.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

L’oxygène et l’eau présents dans l’atmosphère sont des acteurs important dans la dégradationdes matériaux contenus dans les dispositifs opto-électroniques organiques. Dans le but d’améliorerla stabilité et la durée de vie de ces dispositifs, ces dispositifs sont encapsulés avec desmatériaux barrière aux gaz par lamination ou par l’utilisation de couches minces. Cette dernière,notamment utilisée pour les OLED, permet de fournir des barrières aux gaz performantes parle dépôt de couches inorganiques denses directement sur les dispositifs. Cependant, elles sontassujetties aux défauts des surfaces sur lesquelles elle sont déposées.L’objectif de ces travaux est de développer une couche de planarisation afin d’homogénéiserla surface des dispositifs photovoltaïques organiques (OPV) et de réduire la rugosité dans lebut d’obtenir une protection barrières aux gaz améliorée, conférée par le dépôt subséquent decouches denses inorganiques selon divers moyens (voie liquide et gazeuse).Dans un premier temps, des couches de planarisation ont été développées à partir de 6 copolymèresp(VDF-HFP). Ces derniers ont été caractérisés afin d’améliorer nos connaissances sur cesmatériaux.Grâce à une étude de solubilité, des encres à différentes concentrations dans l’acétate d’éthyleont été réalisées. Ces dernières ont été étudiées par des mesures rhéologiques et de tension desurface permettant de mieux appréhender leur étalement, et les états de surface obtenus sur dessubstrats PET et sur les dispositifs OPV. Ces recherches ont été complétées par un contrôlede la topographie et par conséquent de la planarisation des dispositifs OPV par microscopieconfocale.Pour finir, l’étude des performances barrière des structures d’encapsulations hybrides (organiqueinorganique)ont dévoilé une bonne compatibilité lorsque la rugosité de la couche de planarisationest très faible. Ces résultats sont confirmés par des mesures barrières aux gaz et des tests devieillissement accélérés des dispositifs OPV encapsulés en enceinte climatique qui permettentd’illustrer l’intérêt de l’encre planarisante développée.Ce travail a été réalisé au laboratoire LMPO au CEA/LITEN en collaboration avec l’industrielArkema dans le but de fournir des technologies d’encapsulations performantes. / Oxygen and water present in the atmosphere are important actors of the degradation of materialscontained in optoelectronic devices. In order to increase the stability and the lifetime ofOPV, the devices are encapsulated with gas-barrier materials by lamination encapsulation orthin film encapsulation. These latter, espacially used in OLED technology, provides high performancegas barriers by depositing dense inorganic layers directly onto the devices. However,they are subject to the defects of the surfaces on which they are deposited.The purpose of this study is to develop a planarinzing layer in order to homogenize the surfaceof organic photovoltaic devices (OPV) and to reduce the roughness with the aim to obtain animproved gas barrier protection, conferred by the subsequent deposition of dense inorganic layersby various ways (liquid and gaseous routes).In a first step, the planarization layers were developed from six p(VDF-HFP) co-polymers. Thesehave been characterized to improve our knowledge on those materials.Through a solubility study, inks at different concentrations in ethyl acetate were made. Thelatter were studied by rheological measurements and surface tension to understand better theirspread, and the surface conditions obtained on PET substrates and OPV devices. Those researchswere completed with a topography control and consequently the planarization of OPVdevices by confocal microscopy.Finally, the study of the barrier performance of hybrid encapsulation structures (organic-inorganic)revealed a good compatibility when the rugosity of the planarization layer is very low. Theseresults are confirmed by permeation measurements and accelerated aging tests of OPV devicesencapsulated in climatic chambers that illustrate the interest of the planarized ink developed.This work has been performed in the LMPO Laboratory at CEA/LITEN in collaboration withthe chemical company Arkema in order to be able to provide performant encapsulation technologies.

Apresentamos neste trabalho algumas propriedades do transporte de cargas de heteroestruturas contendo pontos-quânticos. Três tópicos foram explorados: no primeiro, observamos um comportamento anômalo nos platôs do efeito Hall quântico, que atribuímos à existência de estados de borda contra-rotativos; no segundo, determinamos o tempo de decoerência do sistema bidimensional de elétrons em função do estágio evolutivo de pontos-quânticos de InAs autoformados nas suas proximidades. Concluímos que a tensão mecânica acumulada durante o crescimento epitaxial \"congela\" os elétrons, reduzindo a taxa de decoerência; finalmente, testamos algumas das possíveis configurações de heteroestruturas visando a construção de fotodetectores baseados em pontos-quânticos. Observamos que a repetição da região-ativa pode ser utilizada como um parâmetro no controle das mobilidades quânticas e, por conseguinte, das propriedades de operação desses detectores. / In this work we present transport properties of heterostructures with quantum-dots. Three subjects were exploited: on the first one, we observed anomalous quantum Hall plateaus, for wich we attributed to the existence of counter-rotating edge-states; on the second subject, we determined the decoherence time of the bidimensional electron system as a function of the evolutionary stage of nearby self-assembled quantum-dots. We concluded the mechanical stress accumulated during the epitaxial growth \"freezes\" the electrons, reducing the decoherence rate; finally, we tested some base-heterostructures of infrared photodetectors. We observed the stacking of active-regions can be used as a parameter to control quantum-mobilities and, as a consequence, the operation properties of such detectors.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur l’élaboration de matériaux polymères conjugués absorbants dans le proche infra-rouge. Il est issu du projet TAPIR financé par l’ANR dans lequel nous visons le développement de dispositifs d’interface Homme/Machine (IHM) pour des applications dans le secteur de la santé, afin de limiter la propagation des agents pathogènes. Les IHM étant contrôlées avec la main, sans contact, grâce à la réflectivité de la peau, (gamme spectrale 850-950 nm), il faut développer des matériaux absorbant dans cette gamme. Dans ce projet, notre rôle a été de synthétiser la partie active du photodétecteur infrarouge utilisé pour récupérer l’information. Une étude bibliographique et des calculs préliminaires ont permis une sélection judicieuse de différents monomères afin d’assurer une stabilité intrinsèque et obtenir les propriétés d’absorption requises. Différents monomères donneurs (D) et accepteurs (A) ont été combinés afin de synthétiser des copolymères alternés de types (D-A). Deux familles de copolymères absorbants dans le proche infrarouge ont ainsi été synthétisés Tous les copolymères ont été synthétisés via la polycondensation Stille. Leurs propriétés optiques, électroniques et leurs stabilités thermiques ont été étudiées. Par la suite, après avoir confirmé le rôle prépondérant de la force du monomère accepteur, par rapport à celle du donneur, sur les propriétés d’absorptions et les niveaux électroniques des différents copolymères obtenus, nous avons développé une approche originale très peu rapportée dans la littérature. Elle consiste en l’élaboration de copolymères de type (A-A). Ainsi, nous avons synthétisé six copolymères absorbants dans la gamme de longueurs d’onde souhaitée, et même au-delà. Enfin, certains copolymères ont pu être caractérisés en dispositifs OFET et photodétecteurs. / This thesis work focuses on the development of conjugated polymeric materials which absorb in the near infrared. It is the result of the TAPIR project funded by the ANR in which we aim to develop human-machine interface (HMI) devices for applications in the health sector, in order to limit the spread of pathogens. Since HMIs are controlled by hand, without contact, thanks to the reflectivity of the skin (spectral range 850-950 nm), it is necessary to develop materials which ansorb in this range. In this project, our role was to synthesize the active part of the infrared photodetector used to retrieve the information. A bibliographical study and preliminary calculations have allowed a judicious selection of different monomers to ensure intrinsic stability and obtain the required absorption properties. Different donor monomers (D) and acceptors (A) were combined to synthesize alternating copolymers of types (D-A). Two families of copolymers which absorb in the near infrared have been synthesized. All copolymers have been synthesized via Stille polycondensation. Their optical, electronic and thermal properties have been studied. Subsequently, after confirming the predominant role of the strength of the accepting monomer, compared to that of the donor, on the absorption properties and electronic levels of the various copolymers obtained, we developed an original approach that has been reported very rarely in the literature. It consists of the production of copolymers of the type (A-A). Thus, we have synthesized six copolymers which absorb in the desired wavelength range, and even beyond. Finally, some copolymers have been characterized as OFET devices and photodetectors.