Photosensitizing effects of xenobiotics are of increasing concern in public health since modern lifestyle often associates sunlight exposure with the presence of chemical substances in the skin. An important number of chemicals like perfumes, sunscreen components, or therapeutic agents have been reported as photosensitizers. In this context, a considerable effort has been made to design a model system for photosafety assessment. Indeed, screening for phototoxicity is necessary at the early phase of drug discovery process, even before introducing drugs and chemicals into clinical therapy, to prevent undesired photoreactions in humans. In the case of new pharmaceuticals, their phototoxic potential has to be tested when they absorb in the regions corresponding to the solar spectrum, that is, for wavelengths >290 nm. So, there is an obvious need for a screening strategy based on in vitro experiments. The goal of the present thesis was the photochemical study of different photoactive drugs to investigate the key molecular aspects responsible for their photosensitivity side effects. In a first stage, rosuvastatin was considered in chapter 3 as representative compound of the statin family. This lipid-lowering drug, also known as “superstatin”, contains a 2-vinylbiphenyl-like moiety and has been previously described to decompose under solar irradiation, yielding stable dihydrophenanthrene analogues. During photophysical characterization of rosuvastatin, only a long-lived transient at ca. 550 nm was observed and assigned to the primary photocyclization intermediate. Thus, the absence of detectable triplet-triplet absorption and the low yield of fluorescence ruled out the role of the parent drug as an efficient sensitizer. In this context, the attention was placed on the rosuvastatin main photoproduct (ppRSV). Indeed, the photobehavior of this dihydrophenanthrene-like compound presented the essential components needed for an efficient biomolecule photosensitizer i.e. (i) a high intersystem crossing quantum yield (ΦISC =0.8), (ii) a triplet excited state energy of ca. 67 kcal mol−1 , and (iii) a quantum yield of singlet oxygen formation (Φ∆) of 0.3. Furthermore, laser flash photolysis studies revealed a triplet-triplet energy transfer from the triplet excited state of ppRSV to thymidine, leading to the formation of cyclobutane thymidine dimers, an important type of DNA lesion. Finally, tryptophan was used as a probe to investigate the Type I and/or Type II character of ppRSV-mediated oxidation. In this way, both an electron transfer process giving rise to the tryptophanyl radical and a singlet oxygen mediated oxidation were observed. On the basis of the obtained results, rosuvastatin, through its major photoproduct ppRSV, should be considered as a potential sensitizer. Then, itraconazole (ITZ), a broad-spectrum antifungal agent, was chosen as main character of chapter 4. Its photochemical properties were investigated in connection with its reported skin photosensitivity disorders. Steady state photolysis, fluorescence and phosphorescence experiments were performed to understand ITZ photoreactivity in biological media. The drug is unstable under UVB irradiation, suffering a primary dehalogenation of the 2,4-dichlorophenyl moiety that occurs mainly at the ortho-position. In poorly H-donating solvents, as acetonitrile, the major photoproduct arises from intramolecular attack of the initially generated aryl radical to the triazole ring. In addition, reduced compounds resulting from homolytic cleavage of the C-Cl bond in ortho or para positions and subsequent Habstraction from the medium are obtained to a lesser extent. In good H-donating solvents, such as ethanol, the main photoproducts are formed by reductive dehalogenation. Furthermore, irradiation of a model dyad containing a tryptophan unit and the reactive 2,4-dichlorophenyl moiety of itraconazole leads to formation of a new covalent link between these two substructures revealing that homolysis of the C-Cl bond of ITZ can result in alkylation of reactive amino acid residues of proteins, leading to formation of covalent photoadducts. Therefore, it has been established that the key process in the photosensitization by itraconazole is cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond, which leads to aryl radicals and chlorine atoms. These highly reactive species might be responsible for extensive free radical-mediated biological damage, including lipid peroxidation or photobinding to proteins. In chapter 5, photobehavior of imatinib (IMT) was addressed. This is a promising tyrosine kinase inhibitor used in the treatment of some types of human cancer, which constitutes a successful example of rational drug design based on the optimization of the chemical structure to reach an improved pharmacological activity. Cutaneous reactions, such as increased photosensitivity or pseudoporphyria, are among the most common nonhematological IMT side effects; however, the molecular bases of these clinical observations have not been unveiled yet. Thus, to gain insight into the IMT photosensitizing properties, its photobehavior was studied together with that of its potentially photoactive anilino-pyrimidine and pyridyl-pyrimidine fragments. In this context, steady-state and time resolved fluorescence, as well as laser flash photolysis experiments were run, and the DNA photosensitization potential was investigated by means of single strand breaks detection using agarose gel electrophoresis. The obtained results revealed that the drug itself and its anilino-pyrimidine fragment are not DNA-photosensitizers. By contrast, the pyridyl-pyrimidine substructure displayed a marked photogenotoxic potential, which was associated with the generation of a long-lived triplet excited state. Interestingly, this reactive species was efficiently quenched by benzanilide, another molecular fragment of IMT. Clearly, integration of the photoactive pyridyl-pyrimidine moiety in a more complex structure strongly modifies its photobehavior, which in this case is fortunate as it leads to an improved toxicological profile. Thus, on the bases of the experimental results, direct in vivo photosensitization by IMT seems unlikely. Instead, the reported photosensitivity disorders could be related to indirect processes, such as the previously suggested impairment of melanogenesis or the accumulation of endogenous porphyrins. Finally, a possible source of errors in the TEMPO/EPR method for singlet oxygen detection was analyzed. For many biological and biomedical studies, it is essential to detect the production of 1O2 and to quantify its production yield. Among the available methods, detection of the characteristic 1270 nm phosphorescence of singlet oxygen by time-resolved near infrared (TRNIR) emission constitutes the most direct and unambiguous approach. An alternative indirect method is electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) in combination with trapping. This is based on the detection of the TEMPO free radical formed after oxidation of TEMP (2,2,6,6- tetramethylpiperidine) by singlet oxygen. Although the TEMPO/EPR method has been largely employed, it can produce misleading data. This was demonstrated by the present study, where the quantum yields of singlet oxygen formation obtained by TRNIR emission and by the TEMPO/EPR method were compared for a set of well-known photosensitizers. The results revealed that the TEMPO/EPR method leads to significant overestimation of singlet oxygen yield when the singlet or triplet excited state of the photosensitizers were efficiently quenched by TEMP, acting as electron donor. In such case, generation of the TEMP+• radical cation, followed by deprotonation and reaction with molecular oxygen gives rise to a EPR detectable TEMPO signal that is not associated with singlet oxygen production. This knowledge is essential for an appropriate and error-free application of the TEMPO/EPR method in chemical, biological and medical studies. / Nardi, G. (2014). MECHANISTIC STUDIES ON THE PHOTOTOXICITY OF ROSUVASTATIN, ITRACONAZOLE AND IMATINIB [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/48535

[ES] La terapia fotodinámica (PDT) y la terapia fototérmica (PTT) son alternativas prometedoras, poco invasivas y muy localizadas a los tratamientos tradicionales contra el cáncer. Ambas se basan en la acción de transductores de energía lumínica (fotosensibilizadores, PS o agentes fototérmicos, PTA) responsables de la transducción de la energía lumínica en mediadores químicos o energía térmica, respectivamente, y la consiguiente destrucción de los tejidos tumorales. En la PDT, la activación con luz de un PS, genera oxígeno singlete y otras especies de oxígeno reactivo (ROS) al reaccionar con el oxígeno molecular, y destruyendo los tejidos tumorales y su microvasculatura. El éxito de esta terapia se basa en la elección de un PS óptimo que absorba luz de la longitud de onda apropiada para penetrar suficientemente en los tejidos y que tenga las propiedades fotofísicas adecuadas. En este trabajo hemos sintetizado un panel de cinco PS del tipo BODIPY, tres de ellos completamente nuevos, y hemos caracterizado su estructura y actividad fotodinámica y citotóxica. En la terapia fototérmica, la irradiación de PTAs que actúan como transductores de la energía lumínica en energía térmica, provoca un aumento de temperatura localizado capaz de dañar las estructuras celulares, destruyendo el tejido tumoral y activando respuestas inmunitarias. En este trabajo utilizamos como PTAs nanopartículas de oro, que se caracterizan por sus propiedades ópticas únicas. En concreto utilizamos nanoestrellas de oro (AuNSt) cuya banda de resonancia de plasmón localizada (LSPR) se localiza en la región del infrarrojo cercano (NIR) del espectro electromagnético. La morfología y composición de las AuNSts provoca un fuerte aumento del campo electromagnético a su alrededor cuando sus electrones de conducción se excitan con luz NIR. Este efecto, además de provocar grandes aumentos de temperatura en su superficie, facilita la absorción multifotónica de ciertos compuestos orgánicos fotolábiles, lo que permite el desarrollo de nanodispositvos capaces de combinar la acción de la hipertermia localizada con la fotodisociación molecular para la liberación controlada de fármacos. En este contexto se desarrollaron cinco sistemas diferentes capaces de ejercer una acción sinérgica en sistemas celulares entre la PTT y la quimioterapia. Dos de ellos utilizan AuNSts para la activación de prodrogas de doxorrubicina (DOX) modificacadas con enlaces fotolábiles de tipo 2-nitrobencílico. El siguiente sistema utiliza AuNSts recubiertas de una capa mesoporosa de sílice (AuNSt@mSiO2), cargadas con DOX, y selladas con una puerta de parafinas termosensibles para la liberación de la DOX mediante el calor generado con la irradiación NIR. El cuarto sistema utiliza las mismas AuNSt@mSiO2 cargadas con DOX, pero selladas con un derivado voluminoso de polietilenglicol que contiene el espaciador fotolábil 2-nitrobencílico, para la liberación de la droga por la fotodisrupción molecular de este espaciador por absorción multifotónica. El último sistema utiliza nanopartículas de tipo Janus formadas por AuNSts funcionalizadas con un derivado del ácido succínico que contiene el espaciador 2-nitrobencílico y nanopartículas mesoporosas de sílice cargadas con DOX y funcionalizadas con un complejo supramolecular benzimidazol-ß-ciclodextrina sensible al pH. La fotodisrupción del enlace fotolábil, libera el mensajero químico (ácido succínico) que protonará la puerta sensible a pH, liberando la DOX. Se caracterizó la estructura, composición y actividad de todos los sistemas tanto in vitro como en sistemas celulares, obteniendo resultados sinérgicos entre la hipertermia localizada y la liberación intracelular de DOX, fotoinducida por luz NIR, en todos los sistemas desarrollados. / [CA] La teràpia fotodinámica (PDT) i la teràpia fototérmica (PTT) són alternatives prometedores, poc invasives i molt localitzades als tractaments tradicionals contra el càncer. Ambdós es basen en l'acció de transductors d'energia lumínica (fotosensibilitzadors, PS o agents fototérmicos, PTA) responsables de la transducció de l'energia lumínica en mediadors químics o energia tèrmica, respectivament, i la consegüent destrucció dels teixits tumorals. En la PDT, l'activació amb llum d'un PS, genera oxígen singlet i altres espècies reactive d'oxigen (ROS) al reaccionar amb l'oxígen molecular, i destrueixen els teixits tumorals i la seua microvasculatura. L'èxit d'esta teràpia es basa en l'elecció d'un PS òptim que absorbisca llum de la longitud d'ona apropiada per a penetrar prou en els teixits i que tinga les propietats fotofísiques adequades. En este treball hem sintetitzat un panell de cinc PSs del tipus BODIPY, tres d'ells completament nous, i hem caracteritzat la seua estructura i activitat fotodinámica i citotóxica. En la teràpia fototérmica, la irradiació de PTAs que actuen com transductors de l'energia lumínica en energia tèrmica, provoca un augment de temperatura localitzat capaç de danyar les estructures cel·lulars, destruint el teixit tumoral i activant respostes immunitàries. En este treball utilitzem com a PTAs nanopartícules d'or, que es caracteritzen per les seues propietats òptiques úniques. En concret utilitzem nanoestreles d'or (AuNSt), la banda de ressonància de plasmón localitzada (LSPR) de les quals es sitúa en la regió de l'infraroig pròxim (NIR) de l'espectre electromagnètic. La morfología i composició de les AuNSts provoca un fort augment del camp electromagnètic al seu voltant quan els seus electrons de conducció s'exciten amb llum NIR Este efecte, a més de provocar un gran augment de temperatura en la seua superfície, facilita l'absorció multifotónica de certs compostos orgànics fotolábils, la qual cosa permet el desenvolupament de nanodispositius capaços de combinar l'acció de l'hipertermia localitzada amb la fotodisociación molecular per a l'alliberament controlat de substàncies. En este context es varen desenvolupar cinc sistemes diferents capaços d'exercir una acció sinèrgica en sistemes cel·lulars entre la PTT i la quimioteràpia. Dos d'ells utilitzen AuNSts per a l'activació de prodrogues de doxorrubicina (DOX) modificades amb enllaços fotolábils de tipus 2-nitrobencílic. El següent sistema utilitza AuNSts recobertes d'una capa mesoporosa de sílice (AuNSt\@mSiO2), carregades amb DOX, i segellades amb una porta de parafina termosensible per a l'alliberament de la DOX per mitjà del calor generat amb la irradiació NIR. El quart sistema utilitza les mateixes AuNSt\@mSiO2 carregades amb DOX, però segellades amb un derivat voluminós de polietilenglicol que conté l'espaciador fotolábil 2-nitrobencílic, per a l'alliberament de la droga per la fotodisrupció molecular d'aquest espaciador per absorció multifotónica. L'últim sistema utilitza nanopartículas de tipus Janus formades per AuNSts funcionalitzades amb un derivat de l'àcid succínic que conté l'espaciador 2-nitrobencílic i nanopartícules mesoporosas de sílice carregades amb DOX i funcionaliezades amb un complex supramole-cular benzimidazol-ß-ciclodextrina sensible al pH. La fotodisrupció de l'enllaç fotolábil, allibera el missatger químic (àcid succínic) que protronarà la porta sensible a pH, alliberant la DOX. Es va caracteritzar l'estructura, composició i activitat de tots els sistemes tant in vitro com en models cel·lulars, obtenint resultats sinèrgics entre la hipertèrmia localitzada i l'alliberament intracel·lular de DOX, fotoinduït per llum NIR, en tots els sistemes desenvolupats. / [EN] Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) are promising, lowinvasive, very localized alternatives to traditional cancer treatments. Both are based on the action of light energy transducers (photosensitizers, PS or photothermal agents, PTAs) responsible for the transduction of light energy in chemical mediators o thermal energy, respectively, and the consequent destruction of tumor tissues. In PDT, light activation of a PS, generates singlet oxygen and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) by reacting with molecular oxygen, and destroying tumor tissues and their microvascu-lature. The success of this therapy is based on the choice of an optimal PS that absorbs light of the appropriate wavelength to penetrate the tissues sufficiently and that has adequate photophysical properties. In this work we have synthesized a panel of five BODIPY-type PSs, three of them completely new, and we have characterized their structure and photodynamic and cytotoxic activity. In photothermal therapy, the irradiation of PTAs which act as transducers of light energy into hermal energy, causes a localized temperature increase capable of damaging cellular structures, destroying tumor tissue and activating immune responses. In this work we use as PTAs gold nanoparticles, which are characterized by their unique optical properties. In particular, we use gold nanostars (AuNSt) whose localized surface plasmon resonance band (LSPR) is located in the near infrared (NIR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The morphology and composition of the AuNSts causes a strong increase in the electromagnetic field around them when their conductive electrons are excited by NIR light. This effect, besides causing large temperature increases on its surface, facilitates the multiphotonic absorption of certain photolabile organic compounds, which allows the development of nanodevices capable of combining the action of localized hyperthermia with molecular photodissociation for the controlled release of drugs. In this context, five different systems capable of carrying out a synergic action in cellular systems between PTT and chemotherapy were developed. Two of them use AuNSts for the activation of doxorubicin (DOX) prodrugs modified with photolabile linkages 2-nitrobenzyl-type. The next system uses AuNSts coated with a mesoporous layer of silica (AuNSt@mSiO2), loaded with DOX, and capped with a thermosensitive paraffin gate for the release of DOX by the heat generated by NIR irradiation. The fourth system uses the same DOX-loaded AuNSt@mSiO2, but sealed with a bulky polyethylene glycol derivative containing the photolabile 2-nitrobenzyl spacer, for drug release by the molecular photodisruption of this spacer by multiphoton absorption. The last system uses Janus-type nanoparticles formed by AuNSts functionalized with a succinic acid derivative containing the 2-nitrobenzylic spacer and mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with DOX and functionalized with a benzim-idazole-ß-cyclodextrin pH-sensitive supramolecular complex. The photodisruption of the photolabile bond releases the chemical messenger (succinic acid) that will protonate the pH-sensitive gate, releasing the DOX. The structure, composition and activity of all systems were characterized both in vitro and in cellular systems, obtaining syner-gistic results between localized hyperthermia and intracellular release of DOX, photoinduced by NIR light, in all developed systems. / Gorbe Moya, M. (2024). Nanodispositivos inteligentes para liberación controlada de fotosensibilizadores en terapia fotodinámica [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/214342