Αντικείμενο της παρούσας διπλωματικής είναι η ανάλυση και ο έλεγχος ενός φ/β συστήματος διασυνδεδεμένου στο δίκτυο, με στόχο να παρέχει μονίμως την μέγιστη ισχύ του και η άεργος ισχύς που εγχέεται στο δίκτυο να μηδενίζεται. Το φ/β σύστημα αποτελείται από μια φ/β συστοιχία, έναν πυκνωτή και έναν DC/AC αντιστροφέα (με το κύκλωμα ελέγχου του) με τον οποίο συνδέεται στο δίκτυο μέσω ενός RL φίλτρου. Στο κύκλωμα ελέγχου περιλαμβάνεται ο έλεγχος για την ανίχνευση του σημείου μέγιστης ισχύος (MPPT ελεγκτής) καθώς και όλοι οι PI ελεγκτές που είναι απαραίτητοι τόσο για τον έλεγχο της dc τάσης όσο και για τον έλεγχο της αέργου ισχύος. Το σύστημα προσομοιώνεται στο περιβάλλον Simulink του Matlab υπό μεταβαλλόμενη ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Αρχικά, για τον MPPT έλεγχο εφαρμόζεται η κλασική Perturb & Observe τεχνική και στη συνέχεια προτείνεται και εφαρμόζεται μια βελτιωμένη εκδοχή της, η οποία αποδεικνύεται ότι έχει μεγαλύτερη αποτελεσματικότητα. / The main subject of this diploma thesis is the analysis and the control of a grid connected Photovoltaic system, in order that it can permanently provide the maximum power and the reactive power injected to the grid could be reduced to zero as well. The P/V system consists of a P/v array, a capacitor and a DC/AC inverter (and the whole control circuit) which is connected to the grid through an RL filter. The control circuit includes the control for the detection (tracking) of the maximum power point (MPPT controller) and all the PI controllers that are necessary in order to control both the dc voltage and the reactive power. The system is simulated by the Simulink in Matlab under changing solar irradiation. Initially, for the MPPT control the classical Perturb & Observe technique is implemented and then an improved version of this technique is proposed and implemented, since it is proved to be much more efficient.

A geração de eletricidade fundamentada na complementariedade pelas fontes renováveis como a solar fotovoltaica distribuída, tem se tornado relevante e essencial para o fornecimento de energia elétrica no modelo atual das redes elétricas em ambientes urbanos. Porém, tendem a ser impactadas por diversos fatores, tais como sujidade, temperatura, degradação, ângulo de orientação e inclinação, bem como topografia do terreno e qualidade de fabricação do módulo. Somasse o sombreamento parcial de elementos do entorno, o qual é o principal fator que afeta a produtividade do sistema fotovoltaico. Esta tese tem como objetivo propor um método para posicionar módulos fotovoltaicos de maiores potências nominais nas regiões com maiores índices de irradiação da planta, para formar associações de módulos que iram operar em semelhantes condições de irradiação durante todo o ano e quantificar a influência da incompatibilidade elétrica devido as diferenças de fabricação dos módulos. Métodos tradicionais de simulação da estimativa de produção anual consideram módulos idênticos e não permitem importar arquivos flash test de cada módulo utilizado na planta fotovoltaica. O método proposto incluiu a análise de irradiação (sombreamento) global média diária anual de cada módulo e desenvolvimento de algoritmo em MATLAB para estudo da incompatibilidade elétrica e posicionamento. O método foi desenvolvido para um estudo de caso teórico de um estacionamento fotovoltaico com sombreamento parcial na cidade São Paulo, no qual o catálogo do módulo e os flash tests foram disponibilizados pelo fabricante. Os resultados do estudo mostram para uma associação série da planta, variação entre -1,4 e +1,2 Wp entre os valores máximos e mínimos da PMPP, indicando um desvio em relação ao valor médio de 0,57% e 0,48%, resultando uma queda da tolerância relativa à qualidade do módulo em comparação com os valores praticado nas simulações. Sendo obtida uma potência total média teórica de 5,922 kWp, enquanto que em uma ordenação aleatório teríamos uma potência total média teórica de 5,880 kWp, ou seja, -40,49 Wp (0,7%) inferior em comparação com a associação série na qual foi aplicado o algoritmo de ordenação. / The energy generation based on the complementary renewable sources as distributed photovoltaic solar energy, has become relevant and essential for current model of energy supply in the urban environment. However, tend to be impacted for several conditions whereby soiling, temperature, degradation, ground topology, orientation and tilt angle, manufacturing tolerances of photovoltaic module. In addition, the partial shading due to the surrounding elements, which is the main factor that decrease the yield of photovoltaic systems. The objective of this thesis is to propose a method to positioning the higher nominal power photovoltaic modules in the regions with higher homogeneous solar irradiance of the plant, to form a string of photovoltaic modules that will operate in a similar ambient condition during the whole year and quantify the influence of electrical mismatch due to small manufacturing differences. Traditional solar simulation tools not allow flash test dataset inputs, often modeled them as an identical devices to estimate the annual energy production. The method consists in identifying and quantifying the reduction of electrical mismatch tolerance, relating the irradiance (shading) on each photovoltaic module and propose a Matlab algorithm to study the electrical mismatch. The method was developed through a theoretical study case of a parking-integrated photovoltaic with partial shading simulated in São Paulo city for which module datasheets as well as flash test data are available. The results show that the percentage deviation of mismatch tolerance for a string of 24 modules when applied the sorting algorithm was reduced among 0.57% (1.4 Wp) and 0.48% (1.2 Wp), between the lowest and highest value of the average nominal maximum power of 245 Wp, when compared with randomly ordered of ± 2.5% (± 6 Wp). In terms of energy production for the string, these values represents an average theoretical nominal power of 5.922 kWp for sorting algorithm and 5.880 kWp considering the random ordered, which represents a PV string energy production of -40.49 Wp (0.7%) lower without the method proposed.

This thesis proposes a Power Management Model (PMM) for optimization of several green power generation systems. A Photovoltaic/Fuel cell Hybrid Energy System (PFHES) consisting of solar cells, electrolyzer and fuel cell stack is utilized to meet a specific DC load bank for various applications. The Photovoltaic system is the primary power source to take advantage of renewable energy. The electrolyzer-fuel cell integration is used as a backup and as a hydrogen storage system with the different energy sources integrated through a DC link bus. An overall power management strategy is designed for the optimization of the power flows among the different energy sources. Extensive simulation experiments have been carried out to verify the system performance under PMM governing strategy. The simulation results indeed demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. / by Rosana Melendez. / Thesis (M.S.C.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Este trabalho apresenta a avaliação dos impactos elétricos da inserção da geração distribuída de sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados à rede de distribuição em baixa tensão, com a finalidade de identificar os impactos e demonstrar que estes podem ser controlados. O estudo consistiu de uma avaliação teórica e de um estudo de caso da inserção da geração fotovoltaica considerando aspectos da qualidade de energia da rede, curva de carga resultante, vida útil de transformadores e gestão ativa da demanda. Os resultados mostraram que a inserção da geração fotovoltaica na rede de baixa tensão altera a curva de carga da unidade consumidora, mas que essas alterações podem ser controladas pela gestão ativa da demanda utilizando armazenamento de energia. Os resultados também mostraram que a geração fotovoltaica também afeta a tensão e o fator de potência da unidade consumidora, mas que essas alterações podem ser controladas pela produção de potência reativa pelo inversor. Além disso, verificou- se que a geração fotovoltaica não afetou a distorção harmônica de tensão da rede e que aumentou a vida útil do transformador. / This work presents the evaluation of grid connected photovoltaic systems\' impact on low voltage electrical grid, in order to identify the impacts and demonstrate that it can be controlled. The study consisted of a theoretical evaluation and of a case study of photovoltaic generation inclusion considering aspects of grid power quality, resulting load curve, lifespan of transformers and demand side management. The results showed that the inclusion of photovoltaic generation in low voltage network changes the load curve of the consumer unit, but these changes can be controlled by demand side management using energy storage. The results also showed that the photovoltaic generation also affects the voltage and the power factor of the consumer unit, but these changes can be controlled by the production of reactive power by the inverter. Furthermore, it was found that the photovoltaic generation does not affect the voltage harmonic distortion of the mains and it increases the lifespan of the transformer.

Grande parte da população rural do Semiárido brasileiro sofre com problemas de acesso à água de qualidade. A exploração da água subterrânea representa uma das principais alternativas para o abastecimento dessa parcela da população, mas muitas vezes os poços perfurados encontram-se longe da rede elétrica. A região apresenta abundante recurso solar e, assim, essa dificuldade poderia ser contornada com a utilização de sistemas fotovoltaicos de bombeamento. Mas, além da questão da energia para o funcionamento dos sistemas de bombeamento, pelo fato da maior parte do Semiárido estar localizada sobre escudo cristalino, muitos poços apresentam água com altos níveis de salinidade, o que inviabiliza a utilização desses mananciais para o fornecimento de água potável ou faz com que a população rejeite seu consumo, por conta do gosto. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo verificar se a adaptação de sistemas de dessalinização de pequeno porte disponíveis comercialmente a sistemas fotovoltaicos domiciliares pode potencializar a difusão dos sistemas fotovoltaicos de bombeamento em poços de água com alto teor de sais dissolvidos e se essa opção pode representar uma alternativa de fornecimento de água para a população rural de áreas com problemas de salinização dos mananciais de abastecimento. A opção analisada consiste em um sistema duplo de fornecimento de água, com tratamento do tipo ponto de uso da água para consumo humano. Foi verificado que os sistemas de dessalinização atualmente disponíveis no mercado podem funcionar acoplados a geradores fotovoltaicos e utilizados para fornecimento de água potável a partir de água salobra. / Much of the rural population of the Brazilian Semiarid region suffers from problems related to access of improved water quality. The exploitation of ground water is the main alternative for water supply solutions regarding this population, but often the boreholes are away from power lines. The region has abundant solar source and therefore this problem could be overcome with the use of photovoltaic pumping systems. Beyond the issue of energy for operation of the borehole systems, considering that most of the semiarid region is located on crystalline shield, many boreholes have water with high level of salinity, which hinder their use for drinking water supply solutions, as the population rejects the water because of its taste. This study aims to determine whether the adaptation of commercially available small household desalinization systems adapted to photovoltaic systems can enhance the diffusion of photovoltaic pumping systems of boreholes with high concentrations of dissolved salt, by proposing this water supply solution as an alternative for water supply systems in rural areas with problems of salinization of the main water sources. The proposed technical solution consists of a dual water supply system with the use a point of use water treatment for human consumption. It was found that desalination systems available on the market can operate coupled to photovoltaic generators and used to supply drinking water from brackish water.

A geração de eletricidade fundamentada na complementariedade pelas fontes renováveis como a solar fotovoltaica distribuída, tem se tornado relevante e essencial para o fornecimento de energia elétrica no modelo atual das redes elétricas em ambientes urbanos. Porém, tendem a ser impactadas por diversos fatores, tais como sujidade, temperatura, degradação, ângulo de orientação e inclinação, bem como topografia do terreno e qualidade de fabricação do módulo. Somasse o sombreamento parcial de elementos do entorno, o qual é o principal fator que afeta a produtividade do sistema fotovoltaico. Esta tese tem como objetivo propor um método para posicionar módulos fotovoltaicos de maiores potências nominais nas regiões com maiores índices de irradiação da planta, para formar associações de módulos que iram operar em semelhantes condições de irradiação durante todo o ano e quantificar a influência da incompatibilidade elétrica devido as diferenças de fabricação dos módulos. Métodos tradicionais de simulação da estimativa de produção anual consideram módulos idênticos e não permitem importar arquivos flash test de cada módulo utilizado na planta fotovoltaica. O método proposto incluiu a análise de irradiação (sombreamento) global média diária anual de cada módulo e desenvolvimento de algoritmo em MATLAB para estudo da incompatibilidade elétrica e posicionamento. O método foi desenvolvido para um estudo de caso teórico de um estacionamento fotovoltaico com sombreamento parcial na cidade São Paulo, no qual o catálogo do módulo e os flash tests foram disponibilizados pelo fabricante. Os resultados do estudo mostram para uma associação série da planta, variação entre -1,4 e +1,2 Wp entre os valores máximos e mínimos da PMPP, indicando um desvio em relação ao valor médio de 0,57% e 0,48%, resultando uma queda da tolerância relativa à qualidade do módulo em comparação com os valores praticado nas simulações. Sendo obtida uma potência total média teórica de 5,922 kWp, enquanto que em uma ordenação aleatório teríamos uma potência total média teórica de 5,880 kWp, ou seja, -40,49 Wp (0,7%) inferior em comparação com a associação série na qual foi aplicado o algoritmo de ordenação. / The energy generation based on the complementary renewable sources as distributed photovoltaic solar energy, has become relevant and essential for current model of energy supply in the urban environment. However, tend to be impacted for several conditions whereby soiling, temperature, degradation, ground topology, orientation and tilt angle, manufacturing tolerances of photovoltaic module. In addition, the partial shading due to the surrounding elements, which is the main factor that decrease the yield of photovoltaic systems. The objective of this thesis is to propose a method to positioning the higher nominal power photovoltaic modules in the regions with higher homogeneous solar irradiance of the plant, to form a string of photovoltaic modules that will operate in a similar ambient condition during the whole year and quantify the influence of electrical mismatch due to small manufacturing differences. Traditional solar simulation tools not allow flash test dataset inputs, often modeled them as an identical devices to estimate the annual energy production. The method consists in identifying and quantifying the reduction of electrical mismatch tolerance, relating the irradiance (shading) on each photovoltaic module and propose a Matlab algorithm to study the electrical mismatch. The method was developed through a theoretical study case of a parking-integrated photovoltaic with partial shading simulated in São Paulo city for which module datasheets as well as flash test data are available. The results show that the percentage deviation of mismatch tolerance for a string of 24 modules when applied the sorting algorithm was reduced among 0.57% (1.4 Wp) and 0.48% (1.2 Wp), between the lowest and highest value of the average nominal maximum power of 245 Wp, when compared with randomly ordered of ± 2.5% (± 6 Wp). In terms of energy production for the string, these values represents an average theoretical nominal power of 5.922 kWp for sorting algorithm and 5.880 kWp considering the random ordered, which represents a PV string energy production of -40.49 Wp (0.7%) lower without the method proposed.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar o potencial de geração fotovoltaica com sistemas de microgeração sobre os edifícios dentro do campus São Paulo da USP. As diferentes topologias de sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados à rede elétrica foram descritas, apresentando as vantagens e desvantagens de cada uma delas. Em 2012, com a edição da Resolução Normativa n°482 pela Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL), tornam-se possíveis no Brasil a instalação de sistemas de geração de energia a partir de fontes renováveis, de forma distribuída, onde o consumidor conectado à rede de distribuição injeta energia na rede elétrica e com isso gera créditos que são usados nos meses subsequentes. A Resolução Normativa n° 687 da ANEEL e o Convênio 16 do CONFAZ, ambos de 2015, estabeleceram novas regras que tornaram a geração distribuída mais atrativa economicamente, o que resultou no crescimento do número de instalações de forma acelerada a partir desse ano. A usina fotovoltaica do Instituto de Energia e Ambiente é formada por quatro instalações distintas e tem uma potência instalada de 540 kWp. Os dados de produção e de desempenho do primeiro ano de operação das instalações que se encontram sobre a Biblioteca Brasiliana Guita e José Mindlin e do Instituto de Estudos Brasileiros foram utilizados para que parâmetros mais adequados fossem inseridos no simulador de sistemas fotovoltaicos SISIFO. Com esses parâmetros, juntamente com dados solarimétricos do projeto SWERA e meteorológicos do INMET utilizou-se o software SISIFO para simular a capacidade de produção de energia elétrica a partir de sistemas fotovoltaicos de microgeração sobre os edifícios identificados no campus. A capacidade anual de produção de energia elétrica calculada para esses sistemas é de 2.600 MWh o que corresponde a 3,1% do consumo total de eletricidade do campus entre abril de 2015 e maio de 2016. / The goal of this work was to determine the potential of photovoltaic generation with microgeneration systems on the buildings within the São Paulo campus of USP. The different topologies of on grid photovoltaic systems were described, presenting the advantages and disadvantages of each one of them. In 2012, with the issuance of Normative Resolution No. 482 by the National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL), it became possible in Brazil to install power generation systems from renewable sources in a distributed way, where consumers connected to the distribution network injects power into the grid and thereby generates credits that are used in the subsequent months. The Normative Resolution N ° 687 of ANEEL and CONFAZ Agreement 16, both of 2015, established new rules that made distributed generation more economically attractive, which resulted in an accelerated growth of the number of installations as of this year. The photovoltaic power plant of the Institute of Energy and Environment is formed by four distinct installations and has an installed power of 540 kWp. The production and performance data of the first year of operation of the facilities located on the Brasiliana Guita and José Mindlin Library and the Brazilian Institute of Studies were used to set the most appropriate parameters to be inserted in the SISIFO photovoltaic system simulator. With these parameters, together with solarimetric data from the SWERA project and meteorological data from INMET, SISIFO was used to simulate the electricity production capacity from photovoltaic microgeneration systems on the identified campus buildings. The annual electricity production capacity calculated for these systems is 2,600 MWh which corresponds to 3.1% of total campus consumption of electricity between April 2015 and May 2016.

Numerous countries are trying to reach almost 100\% renewable penetration. Variable renewable energy (VRE), for instance wind and PV, will be the main provider of the future grid. The efforts to decrease the greenhouse gasses are promising on the current remarkable growth of grid connected photovoltaic (PV) capacity. This thesis provides an overview of the presented techniques, standards and grid interface of the PV systems in distribution and transmission level. This thesis reviews the most-adopted grid codes which required by system operators on large-scale grid connected Photovoltaic systems. The adopted topologies of the converters, the control methodologies for active - reactive power, maximum power point tracking (MPPT), as well as their arrangement in solar farms are studied. The unique L(LCL)2 filter is designed, developed and introduced in this thesis. This study will help researchers and industry users to establish their research based on connection requirements and compare between different existing technologies. Another, major aspect of the work is the development of Virtual Inertia Emulator (VIE) in the combination of hybrid energy storage system addressing major challenges with VRE implementations. Operation of a photovoltaic (PV) generating system under intermittent solar radiation is a challenging task. Furthermore, with high-penetration levels of photovoltaic energy sources being integrated into the current electric power grid, the performance of the conventional synchronous generators is being changed and grid inertial response is deteriorating. From an engineering standpoint, additional technical measures by the grid operators will be done to confirm the increasingly strict supply criteria in the new inverter dominated grid conditions. This dissertation proposes a combined virtual inertia emulator (VIE) and a hybrid battery-supercapacitor-based energy storage system . VIE provides a method which is based on power devices (like inverters), which makes a compatible weak grid for integration of renewable generators of electricity. This method makes the power inverters behave more similar to synchronous machines. Consequently, the synchronous machine properties, which have described the attributes of the grid up to now, will remain active, although after integration of renewable energies. Examples of some of these properties are grid and generator interactions in the function of a remote power dispatch, transients reactions, and the electrical outcomes of a rotating bulk mass. The hybrid energy storage system (HESS) is implemented to smooth the short-term power fluctuations and main reserve that allows renewable electricity generators such as PV to be considered very closely like regular rotating power generators. The objective of utilizing the HESS is to add/subtract power to/from the PV output in order to smooth out the high frequency fluctuations of the PV power, which may occur due to shadows of passing cloud on the PV panels. A control system designed and challenged by providing a solution to reduce short-term PV output variability, stabilizing the DC link voltage and avoiding short term shocks to the battery in terms of capacity and ramp rate capability. Not only could the suggested system overcome the slow response of battery system (including dynamics of battery, controller, and converter operation) by redirecting the power surges to the supercapacitor system, but also enhance the inertial response by emulating the kinetic inertia of synchronous generator.

Tools and algorithms are proposed that are useful for planning, designing, and operating a distribution network with a significant penetration of distributed generation (DG). In Task 1, a PV system simulation program is developed, which incorporates the most rigorous models for the calculation of insolation, module temperature, and DC and AC power output of a PV system. The effect of random inverter failures is incorporated in the model of a PV system, and a novel performance-derating coefficient is introduced. Furthermore, a novel inverter control algorithm is presented for systems with multiple inverters. The algorithm is designed to increase overall DC/AC conversion efficiency by selectively shutting down some of the inverters during periods of low insolation, thus forcing the remaining inverters to operate at higher efficiency. In Task 2, a procedure is developed to incorporate the uncertainties imposed by stochastic, renewable DG into the conventional tools for analysis of distribution systems. A clustering algorithm is proposed to reduce large input data sets that result from the interaction of stochastic processes that drive DG output with field measurements of feeder load profiles. In addition, a procedure is proposed to determine the boundary points of the original data set, which yield feeder extreme operating conditions. Finally, a Monte Carlo analysis using a reduced data set is presented, to determine the effects of deploying a large number of renewable DG systems on a distribution feeder. In Task 3, the reliability model of an asymmetric, three--phase, non-radial distribution feeder equipped with capacity-constrained DGs is developed and used to quantify the potential reliability improvements due to the intentional islanded operation of parts of the feeder. A procedure for finding optimal positions for DG and protection devices is presented using a custom-tailored adaptive genetic algorithm.

Multilevel inverters offer many well-known advantages for use in high-voltage and high-power applications, but they are also well suited for low-power applications. A single phase inverter is developed in this paper to deliver power from a residential-scale system of Photovoltaic panels to the utility grid. The single-stage inverter implements a novel control technique for the reversing voltage topology to produce a stepped output waveform. This approach increases the granularity of control over the PV systems, modularizing key components of the inverter and allowing the inverter to extract the maximum power from the systems. The adaptive controller minimizes harmonic distortion in its output and controls the level of reactive power injected to the grid. A computer model of the controller is designed and tested in the MATLAB program Simulink to assess the performance of the controller. To validate the results, the performance of the proposed inverter is compared to that of a comparable voltage-sourced inverter.