abstract: The research described in this dissertation involved the use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to characterize II-VI and III-V compound semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) and dilute-nitride alloys grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and intended for photovoltaic applications. The morphology of CdTe QDs prepared by the post-annealing MBE method were characterized by various microscopy techniques including high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), and high-angle annular-dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM). Extensive observations revealed that the of QD shapes were not well-defined, and the QD size and spatial distribution were not determined by the amount of CdTe deposition. These results indicated that the formation of II-VI QDs using a post-annealing treatment did not follow the conventional growth mechanism for III-V and IV-IV materials. The structural properties of dilute-nitride GaAsNx films grown using plasma-assisted MBE were characterized by TEM and HAADF-STEM. A significant amount of the nitrogen incorporated into the dilute nitride films was found to be interstitial, and that fluctuations in local nitrogen composition also occurred during growth. Post-growth partial relaxation of strain resulted in the formation of {110}-oriented microcracks in the sample with the largest substitutional nitrogen composition. Single- and multi-layered InAs QDs grown on GaAsSb/GaAs composite substrates were investigated using HR-TEM and HAADF-STEM. Correlation between the structural and optoelectronic properties revealed that the GaAsSb barrier layers had played an important role in tuning the energy-band alignments but without affecting the overall structural morphology. However, according to both XRD measurement and electron microscopy the densities of dislocations increased as the number of QD layers built up. An investigation of near-wetting layer-free InAs QDs incorporated with AlAs/GaAs spacer layers was carried out. The microscopy observations revealed that both embedded and non-embedded near-wetting layer-free InAs QDs did not have well-defined shapes unlike conventional InAs QDs. According to AFM analysis and plan-view TEM characterization, the InAs QDs incorporated with spacer layers had smaller dot density and more symmetrical larger sizes with an apparent bimodal size distribution (two distinct families of large and small dots) in comparison with conventional InAs QDs grown without any spacer layer. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2014

A energia solar fotovoltaica é a forma de produção de eletricidade que mais cresce no mundo. A potência instalada mundial, até o ano de 2010, era de cerca de 40 GWP e a previsão é de que, somente em 2011, este cifra seja aumentada em mais 24 GWP. O inversor é o elemento central dos sistemas fotovoltaicos. Além de executar a conversão da energia elétrica em corrente contínua para corrente alternada, ele também é responsável pelo gerenciamento da energia entregue à rede e pelo seguimento do ponto de máxima potência. O seguimento do ponto de máxima potência (MPPT) é um processo de controle no qual o inversor procura manter o gerador fotovoltaico operando em uma região da sua curva característica na qual o produto corrente × tensão tenha o seu valor máximo, de forma a otimizar a extração de potência do gerador fotovoltaico. A eficiência de MPPT é um número que indica o grau de precisão, tanto em termos de rapidez como de magnitude, com que o seguidor do ponto de máxima potência atinge o seu objetivo. Assim podem ser definidas duas eficiências de MPPT: a eficiência estática, associada a situações em que a irradiância solar permanece constante durante o intervalo considerado, e a eficiência dinâmica de MPPT, que considera os momentos de variação na intensidade da irradiância, resultantes, por exemplo, da passagem de nuvens. As eficiências de MPPT (especialmente a dinâmica) são de difícil determinação, porém a tarefa fica muito facilitada com a utilização de um simulador de arranjos fotovoltaicos. A norma européia EN 50530:2010 Overall Efficiency of Photovoltaic Inverters propôs uma metodologia para a determinação da eficiência dinâmica de MPPT utilizando perfis variáveis de irradiância a serem programados no simulador de arranjos fotovoltaicos. O objetivo central da tese é fazer uma análise experimental da eficiência dinâmica do seguimento de máxima potência de inversores conectados à rede através da comparação dos resultados de eficiência obtidos seguindo a metodologia definida na norma citada com resultados obtidos a partir de medições em tempo real ao longo de um dia, verificando a adequação da norma às situações de campo. Para a obtenção dos dados de entrada do simulador foram medidas, por diversos dias, a irradiância e temperatura de uma célula de referência. Os inversores foram conectados à saída do simulador de arranjos fotovoltaicos e foram reproduzidas as condições de irradiância e temperatura de três dias selecionados em função do grau de nebulosidade, com comportamento dinâmico semelhante aos perfis de irradiância da norma. Os resultados foram, na maioria dos casos, discordantes. Uma análise dos resultados parciais de eficiência dinâmica indicou como causa desta discrepância a dependência que a eficiência dinâmica de MPPT tem com a taxa de variação da irradiância. Conclui-se que, embora as seqüências de irradiância propostas pela norma constituam uma eficiente ferramenta para o diagnóstico de eventuais deficiências no comportamento do seguidor de máxima potência de inversores, a média dos valores de eficiência de MPPT calculados a partir delas não pode, em princípio, ser considerada como representativa de valores diários. / Photovoltaic solar energy is the fastest growing electricity source in the world. The worldwide capacity until 2010 was about 40 GWP and, by the end of 2011, this figure will be increased by another 24 GWP. The inverter is the pivotal element of PV systems. In addition to performing the conversion of electrical energy from direct current to alternating current, the inverter is also responsible for the management of the energy delivered to the grid and for performing the maximum power point tracking. The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a control process by which the inverter tries to keep the PV generator operating in a region of its characteristic curve where the product current × voltage reaches its maximum value. The MPPT efficiency is a figure that indicates the degree of precision, both in terms of speed and magnitude, that the MPPT reaches its goal. Thus, two MPPT efficiencies can be defined: the static efficiency, associated to situations in which the solar irradiance does not vary during the considered interval, and also the dynamic MPPT efficiency, which considers the variation of the irradiance intensity as a result, for example, of the passage of clouds. MPPT efficiencies (especially the dynamic) are hard to determine, but the task becomes much easier with the use of a photovoltaic array simulator. The European standard EN 50530:2010 Overall Efficiency of Photovoltaic Inverters proposes a methodology for determining the dynamic efficiency of MPPT using variable irradiance profiles to be programmed into the photovoltaic array simulator. The main objective of this thesis is to make an experimental analysis of the dynamic MPPT efficiency of grid connected inverters by comparing the efficiency results obtained by following the methodology defined in the referred standard with results obtained from real time measurements in the course of a day, checking the adequacy of the standard when applied to field situations. In order to obtain the input data for the simulator, the irradiance and temperature of a reference cell were measured for several days. The inverters were connected to the output of the array simulator, which reproduced the conditions of irradiance and temperature for three days selected according to the degree of cloudiness, having a dynamic behavior similar to the standard irradiance profiles. The results, in most cases, disagree. An analysis of partial results of dynamic efficiency indicated the dependence of the dynamic MPPT efficiency to the rate of irradiance change as the cause of this discrepancy. As a conclusion, it can be stated that, although the sequences of irradiance proposed by the standard are an efficient tool for the diagnosis of deficiencies in the behavior of the MPP tracker, the average efficiency of MPPT calculated from the sequences cannot, in principle, to be considered as representative of the daily values of dynamic MPPT efficiency.

Resume in English language Solar energy and its financial and legal aspects The topic of this thesis is the production of electricity from solar light and its legislation in the Czech Republic and European Union. The objective of this thesis is to analyse the whole development since the year 2005 until today, because it is full of interesting aspects. After the introduction the first part of this thesis is focused on the legislation of the European Union, which created foundation for Czech laws, i.e. Directives 2001/77/EC and 2009/28/EC. It is followed by the analysis of Czech laws, which were valid at that time, especially the Act no. 180/2005 Coll., and the Act no. 458/2008 Sb., Energy Act. As for the Energy Act, there is also added part about its current amendment and also the Act on income taxes is mentioned. Following part is focused on the solar boom, its causes and consequences. Because of the fact that the implemented solutions has provoked large discussions, this chapter is focused also on individual implemented solutions. Third part of the thesis is crucial and it is focused on the analysis of key court decisions in this field, i.e. three main court decisions, which are related to the solar tax. Those are interesting decisions of the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Administrative Court of the...

This dissertation explores strategies for improving photolvoltaic efficiency and reducing cost using femtosecond-laser processing methods including surface texturing and hyperdoping. Our investigations focus on two aspects: 1) texturing the silicon surface to create efficient light-trapping for thin silicon solar cells, and 2) understanding the mechanism of hyperdoping to control the doping profiles for fabricating efficient intermediate band materials. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) is a leading thin film photovoltaic (PV) material due to its near ideal bandgap of 1.45 eV and its high optical absorption coefficient. Advancements in efficiencies of CdTe/CdS solar cells over the past few decades have come from improving the short circuit current (JSC) and Fill Factor (FF) but the Open Circuit Voltage (VOC) has been stagnant. Further improvements in efficiencies should come from increased VOC’s. VOC’s can be improved by increasing the acceptor concentration and minority carrier lifetime. Both these parameters can be controlled by manipulating the native defect concentration in CdTe which can be achieved by varying CdTe stoichiometry. In this study, a deposition system called Elemental Vapor Transport was used to vary the CdTe stoichiometry with an intent to change the native defect concentration and therefore pave way to increase acceptor concentration and lifetimes. Elemental cadmium and tellurium were heated in dedicated zones and their vapors were transported to the substrate using a carrier gas. By varying the temperatures and flowrates of the carrier gas through the zones, the gas phase Cd/Te ratio was varied to deposit Cd-rich, Te-rich and stoichiometric films. Structural properties were investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (EDS). Electrical characterization of completed devices was carried out by Current-Voltage (J-V), Capacitance-Voltage (C-V), and Spectral Response (SR) and Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements. Cd-rich films showed smaller grain sizes and lesser degree of preferential orientation. Te-rich films showed increased acceptor concentration and carrier lifetimes and solar cells fabricated using these films showed higher VOC’s compared to Cd-rich and stoichiometric films .Higher degree of CdTe-CdS mixing was observed at the interface for films deposited at increased substrate temperatures.

Thin-film photovoltaics are of great interest due to decreased manufacturing costs, improved environmental sustainability and the potential for flexible, semi-transparent, and light-weight modules. The scientific literature contains a plethora of work incorporating wavelength scale nanostructures within thin-film solar cells to increase power conversion efficiency by trapping light inside solar cell absorbing layers. One category of nanostructures, namely plasmonic nanoparticles, theoretically show great promise for their light-trapping abilities but experimental success has been limited. In this work, solar cells were designed and fabricated to incorporate multiple light-trapping mechanisms, including optical cavity resonances, waveguide mode excitation, and plasmonic effects. Due to our novel design considerations, we demonstrate a 33% increase in Jsc originating from plasmon-based enhancement mechanisms. The experimental results are complemented and confirmed by well-matching simulations which are used to further investigate the light-trapping mechanisms. The concepts demonstrated in this work can be directly translated to next-generation transition metal dichalcogenide photovoltaic devices. / Graduate / 2018-12-14

As part of the SUNRISE project (Semiconductors Using Nanostructures for Record Increases in Solar-cell Efficiency), high efficiency, III-V semiconductor, quantum-dot-enhanced, triple-junction solar cells designed and manufactured by Cyrium Technologies Inc. were integrated into OPEL Solar, MK-I, Fresnel-lens-based, 550x concentrating modules carried on a dual axis tracker. Over its first year of operation 1.8 MWh of AC electrical energy was exported to the grid. Measurements of the direct and indirect components of the insolation, as well as the spectral irradiance of light incident on the demonstrator in Ottawa, Canada are presented. The system efficiency is measured and compared to that predicted by a system model to identify loss mechanisms so that they can be minimized in future deployments.

This MA thesis deals with the cost of photovoltaics subsidies in selected European countries. It consists of theoretical and applied sections. The theoretical one provides a brief history of photovoltaic technology and gives a short account of the attitude of European Union towards its support. In the applied part the promotion schemes used in Slovak Republic, Greece and the United Kingdom are described and the total costs of these schemes are estimated based on the best available predictions of future development. The total costs are then computed by adding the support promised. The total costs are estimated to amount to 3,5 bn EUR in Slovakia, 16 bn. EUR in Greece and 13 bn. EUR in the UK.

abstract: The operating temperature of photovoltaic (PV) modules has a strong impact on the expected performance of said modules in photovoltaic arrays. As the install capacity of PV arrays grows throughout the world, improved accuracy in modeling of the expected module temperature, particularly at finer time scales, requires improvements in the existing photovoltaic temperature models. This thesis work details the investigation, motivation, development, validation, and implementation of a transient photovoltaic module temperature model based on a weighted moving-average of steady-state temperature predictions. This thesis work first details the literature review of steady-state and transient models that are commonly used by PV investigators in performance modeling. Attempts to develop models capable of accounting for the inherent transient thermal behavior of PV modules are shown to improve on the accuracy of the steady-state models while also significantly increasing the computational complexity and the number of input parameters needed to perform the model calculations. The transient thermal model development presented in this thesis begins with an investigation of module thermal behavior performed through finite-element analysis (FEA) in a computer-aided design (CAD) software package. This FEA was used to discover trends in transient thermal behavior for a representative PV module in a timely manner. The FEA simulations were based on heat transfer principles and were validated against steady-state temperature model predictions. The dynamic thermal behavior of PV modules was determined to be exponential, with the shape of the exponential being dependent on the wind speed and mass per unit area of the module. The results and subsequent discussion provided in this thesis link the thermal behavior observed in the FEA simulations to existing steady-state temperature models in order to create an exponential weighting function. This function can perform a weighted average of steady-state temperature predictions within 20 minutes of the time in question to generate a module temperature prediction that accounts for the inherent thermal mass of the module while requiring only simple input parameters. Validation of the modeling method presented here shows performance modeling accuracy improvement of 0.58%, or 1.45°C, over performance models relying on steady-state models at narrow data intervals. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Engineering 2020

abstract: This dissertation covers my doctoral research on the cathodoluminescence (CL) study of the optical properties of III-niride semiconductors. The first part of this thesis focuses on the optical properties of Mg-doped gallium nitride (GaN:Mg) epitaxial films. GaN is an emerging material for power electronics, especially for high power and high frequency applications. Compared to traditional Si-based devices, GaN-based devices offer superior breakdown properties, faster switching speed, and reduced system size. Some of the current device designs involve lateral p-n junctions which require selective-area doping. Dopant distribution in the selectively-doped regions is a critical issue that can impact the device performance. While most studies on Mg doping in GaN have been reported for epitaxial grown on flat c-plane substrates, questions arise regarding the Mg doping efficiency and uniformity in selectively-doped regions, where growth on surfaces etched away from the exact c-plane orientation is involved. Characterization of doping concentration distribution in lateral structures using secondary ion mass spectroscopy lacks the required spatial resolution. In this work, visualization of acceptor distribution in GaN:Mg epilayers grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) was achieved at sub-micron scale using CL imaging. This was enabled by establishing a correlation among the luminescence characteristics, acceptor concentration, and electrical conductivity of GaN:Mg epilayers. Non-uniformity in acceptor distribution has been observed in epilayers grown on mesa structures and on miscut substrates. It is shown that non-basal-plane surfaces, such as mesa sidewalls and surface step clusters, promotes lateral growth along the GaN basal planes with a reduced Mg doping efficiency. The influence of surface morphology on the Mg doping efficiency in GaN has been studied. The second part of this thesis focuses on the optical properties of InGaN for photovoltaic applications. The effects of thermal annealing and low energy electron beam irradiation (LEEBI) on the optical properties of MOCVD-grown In0.14Ga0.86N films were studied. A multi-fold increase in luminescence intensity was observed after 800 °C thermal annealing or LEEBI treatment. The mechanism leading to the luminescence intensity increase has been discussed. This study shows procedures that significantly improve the luminescence efficiency of InGaN, which is important for InGaN-based optoelectronic devices. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Materials Science and Engineering 2020