Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in men in the Western world. Deregulation of transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling pathway is frequently detected in prostate cancer and contributes to tumor growth, migration, and invasion. In normal tissue and the early stages of cancer, TGFβ acts as a tumor suppressor by regulating proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. In later stages of cancer, TGFβ acts as a tumor promoter by inducing angiogenesis, tumor invasion, and migration. Thus, it is important to investigate the molecular mechanisms behind the tumor-promoting effects of TGFβ, which is the topic of this thesis.   The tumor necrosis factor receptor–associated factor 6 (TRAF6) controls non-canonical TGFβ signals due to its enzymatic activity, causing polyubiquitination of the cell membrane–bound, serine/threonine kinase TGFβ type I receptor (TβRI) and its subsequent cleavage in the extracellular domain by tumor necrosis factor a–converting enzyme (TACE) in a protein kinase C ζ (PKCζ)-dependent manner. TRAF6 also recruits the active g-secretase complex to the TβRI, resulting in a second cleavage in the transmembrane region and the liberation of the TβRI intracellular domain (TβRI-ICD), which enters the nucleus, where it associates with the transcriptional co-regulator p300. In Paper I, the aim was to elucidate by which mechanisms TβRI-ICD enters the nucleus. We found that the endocytic adaptor protein APPL1 interacts with TβRI and PKCζ. APPL proteins are required for TβRI translocation from endosomes to the nucleus via microtubules in a TRAF6-dependent manner. Moreover, APPL proteins are important for TGFβ-induced cell invasion, and high levels of APPL1 are detected by immunohistochemistry in prostate cancer. Finally, we demonstrated that the APPL1–TβRI complex visualized with the in situ proximity ligation assay (PLA) correlates with Gleason score, indicating that it might be a novel prognostic marker for aggressive prostate cancer. In Paper II, the aim was to explore by which mechanisms TGFβ causes activation of the AKT pathway, which regulates migration and therapy resistance of cancer cells. We found that the E3 ligase activity of TRAF6 induces Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of p85α upon TGFβ stimulation, resulting in plasma membrane recruitment, Lys63-linked polyubiquitination, and subsequent activation of AKT. Moreover, the TRAF6 and PI3K/AKT pathway were found to be crucial for the TGFβ-induced migration. Importantly, we demonstrated, by PLA, a correlation between Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of p85α and aggressive prostate cancer in tissue sections from patients with prostate cancer. In Paper III, the aim was to investigate the mechanisms for TGFβ-induced activation of PKCζ and the role of PKCζ in tumor regression. We found that TRAF6 caused Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of PKCζ. By using two novel chemical compounds that inhibit PKCζ, we demonstrated that PKCζ is crucial for prostate cancer cell survival and invasion. In Paper IV, the aim was to investigate further the target genes for the nuclear TβRI-ICD-APPL1 complex identified in Paper I. We provide evidence that APPL proteins and the TGFβ signaling pathway are important for cell proliferation. In summary, the results reported in this thesis suggest the potential usefulness of the identified signaling components of the tumor-promoting effects of TGFβ as drug targets and biomarkers for aggressive prostate cancer.

L’angiogenèse est la formation de nouveaux vaisseaux sanguins à partir d’un réseau vasculaire existant. C’est un phénomène essentiel pour des processus physiologiques et pathologiques. L’activation des cellules endothéliales est contrôlée par plusieurs facteurs de croissance. Le VEGF et son récepteur le VEGFR-2 ont été prouvés comme étant spécifiques et critiques pour la formation des vaisseaux sanguins alors que Tie2, le récepteur auquel se lie l’Ang-1, est requis aussi bien dans le développement vasculaire que dans l’angiogenèse tumorale. Il est connu que l’activation de Tie2 est nécessaire à la stabilisation finale de la vascularisation en inhibant la perméabilité vasculaire induite par le VEGFR-2. Nous avons premièrement découvert que le facteur de croissance pro-angiogénique, l’Ang-1 contrecarre les effets de perméabilité cellulaire induits par le VEGF en inhibant la production de NO dans les cellules endothéliales. Cet effet inhibiteur de Tie2 intervient directement au niveau de l’activité de l’enzyme eNOS. Suite à l’activation de Tie2 par l’Ang-1, eNOS devient fortement phosphorylé sur la Thr497 après la phosphorylation et l’activation de la PKCζ. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’inhibition, par Tie2, de la perméabilité vasculaire durant l’angiogenèse serait due, en partie, à l’inhibition de la production de NO. Deuxièmement nous avons pu distinguer entre deux modes de migration cellulaire endothéliale induits par l’Ang-1 et le VEGF. À l’opposé du VEGF qui promeut une migration individuelle aléatoire, l’Ang-1 induit une migration collective directionnelle. Dans cette étude, nous avons identifié la β-caténine comme un nouveau partenaire moléculaire de la PKCζ. Cette association de la PKCζ à la β-caténine amène le complexe de polarité Par6-aPKC et le complexe des jonctions d’adhérences cellulaires à interagir ensemble à deux localisations différentes au niveau de la cellule endothéliale. Au niveau des contacts intercellulaires, le complexe PKCζ/β-caténine maintien la cohésion et l’adhésion cellulaire nécessaire pour le processus migratoire collectif. Ce complexe se retrouve aussi au niveau du front migratoire des cellules endothéliales afin d’assurer la directionalité et la persistance de la migration endothéliale en réponse à l’Ang-1. D’une manière intéressante, lors de l’inhibition de la PKCζ ou de la β-caténine on assiste à un changement du mode de migration en réponse à l’Ang-1 qui passe d’une migration directionnelle collective à une migration individuelle aléatoire. Ce dernier mode de migration est similaire à celui observé chez des cellules endothéliales exposées au VEGF. Ces résultats ont été corroborés in vivo par une polarité et une adhésion défectueuses au cours de la vasculogenèse chez le poisson zèbre déficient en PKCζ. En résumé, Ang-1/Tie2 module la signalisation et les réponses biologiques endothéliales déclenchées par le VEGF/VEGFR-2. L’identification des mécanismes moléculaires en aval de ces deux récepteurs, Tie2 et VEGFR-2, et la compréhension des différentes voies de signalisation activées par ces complexes moléculaires nous permettra de mettre la lumière sur des nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour le traitement des maladies angiogéniques. / Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels from a pre-existing vascular network. It is an essential mechanism for many physiological and pathological conditions. Also, the general mechanism in both conditions remains the same. VEGF and its receptor VEGFR-2 have been proven to be specific and critical for blood vessel formation. The Angiopoietin-1 receptor, Tie2, is required for vascular development as well as in tumor angiogenesis. It is known that the activation of Tie2 is required for vascular stabilization by inhibiting vascular permeability induced by VEGFR-2. First, we found that the pro-angiogenic growth factor, Ang-1 counteracts the effects of VEGF-induced permeability by inhibiting NO production by endothelial cells. This inhibitory effect of Tie2 acts directly on eNOS activity. Following activation of Tie2 by Ang-1, eNOS becomes highly phosphorylated on the inhibitory site, the Thr497, following PKCζ phosphorylation and activation. Our results suggest that the inhibition by Tie2 of vascular permeability during angiogenesis is due, in part, to the inhibition of NO production. In our second study we distinguished between two types of endothelial cell migration induced by Ang-1 and VEGF. At the opposite of Ang-1 that induced collective and directional cell migration, VEGF promoted individual and random cell motility. We identified β-catenin as a new molecular partner of PKCζ. This association of PKCζ with β-catenin brings the Par6-aPKC polarity complex and the adherens junctions complex to interact with each other at two different locations in endothelial cells. PKCζ/β-catenin complex is located specifically at cell-cell contacts to maintain cohesion and cell adhesion necessary for the collective migration process. This complex was located also at the leading edge of endothelial cells during migration to ensure the directionality and the persistence of migration in response to Ang-1. In addition, inhibition of PKCζ or β-catenin switched the migration mode, in response to Ang-1, from directional and collective to a more random and individual cell migration which resembles the type of migration of endothelial cells exposed to VEGF. These results were confirmed in vivo by aberrant cell polarity and cell adhesion defects of tip cell during vascular sprouting of intersegmental vessels in PKCζ deficient zebrafish embryos. In summary, Ang-1/Tie2 modulates endothelial cell signaling and biological responses induced by VEGF/VEGFR-2. The identification of molecular mechanisms involved in the action of these two receptors, VEGFR-2 and Tie2, and the understanding of the different signaling pathways activated by these molecular complexes will allow us to identify new therapeutic targets for the treatment of angiogenic diseases treatment.

L’angiogenèse est la formation de nouveaux vaisseaux sanguins à partir d’un réseau vasculaire existant. C’est un phénomène essentiel pour des processus physiologiques et pathologiques. L’activation des cellules endothéliales est contrôlée par plusieurs facteurs de croissance. Le VEGF et son récepteur le VEGFR-2 ont été prouvés comme étant spécifiques et critiques pour la formation des vaisseaux sanguins alors que Tie2, le récepteur auquel se lie l’Ang-1, est requis aussi bien dans le développement vasculaire que dans l’angiogenèse tumorale. Il est connu que l’activation de Tie2 est nécessaire à la stabilisation finale de la vascularisation en inhibant la perméabilité vasculaire induite par le VEGFR-2. Nous avons premièrement découvert que le facteur de croissance pro-angiogénique, l’Ang-1 contrecarre les effets de perméabilité cellulaire induits par le VEGF en inhibant la production de NO dans les cellules endothéliales. Cet effet inhibiteur de Tie2 intervient directement au niveau de l’activité de l’enzyme eNOS. Suite à l’activation de Tie2 par l’Ang-1, eNOS devient fortement phosphorylé sur la Thr497 après la phosphorylation et l’activation de la PKCζ. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’inhibition, par Tie2, de la perméabilité vasculaire durant l’angiogenèse serait due, en partie, à l’inhibition de la production de NO. Deuxièmement nous avons pu distinguer entre deux modes de migration cellulaire endothéliale induits par l’Ang-1 et le VEGF. À l’opposé du VEGF qui promeut une migration individuelle aléatoire, l’Ang-1 induit une migration collective directionnelle. Dans cette étude, nous avons identifié la β-caténine comme un nouveau partenaire moléculaire de la PKCζ. Cette association de la PKCζ à la β-caténine amène le complexe de polarité Par6-aPKC et le complexe des jonctions d’adhérences cellulaires à interagir ensemble à deux localisations différentes au niveau de la cellule endothéliale. Au niveau des contacts intercellulaires, le complexe PKCζ/β-caténine maintien la cohésion et l’adhésion cellulaire nécessaire pour le processus migratoire collectif. Ce complexe se retrouve aussi au niveau du front migratoire des cellules endothéliales afin d’assurer la directionalité et la persistance de la migration endothéliale en réponse à l’Ang-1. D’une manière intéressante, lors de l’inhibition de la PKCζ ou de la β-caténine on assiste à un changement du mode de migration en réponse à l’Ang-1 qui passe d’une migration directionnelle collective à une migration individuelle aléatoire. Ce dernier mode de migration est similaire à celui observé chez des cellules endothéliales exposées au VEGF. Ces résultats ont été corroborés in vivo par une polarité et une adhésion défectueuses au cours de la vasculogenèse chez le poisson zèbre déficient en PKCζ. En résumé, Ang-1/Tie2 module la signalisation et les réponses biologiques endothéliales déclenchées par le VEGF/VEGFR-2. L’identification des mécanismes moléculaires en aval de ces deux récepteurs, Tie2 et VEGFR-2, et la compréhension des différentes voies de signalisation activées par ces complexes moléculaires nous permettra de mettre la lumière sur des nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour le traitement des maladies angiogéniques. / Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels from a pre-existing vascular network. It is an essential mechanism for many physiological and pathological conditions. Also, the general mechanism in both conditions remains the same. VEGF and its receptor VEGFR-2 have been proven to be specific and critical for blood vessel formation. The Angiopoietin-1 receptor, Tie2, is required for vascular development as well as in tumor angiogenesis. It is known that the activation of Tie2 is required for vascular stabilization by inhibiting vascular permeability induced by VEGFR-2. First, we found that the pro-angiogenic growth factor, Ang-1 counteracts the effects of VEGF-induced permeability by inhibiting NO production by endothelial cells. This inhibitory effect of Tie2 acts directly on eNOS activity. Following activation of Tie2 by Ang-1, eNOS becomes highly phosphorylated on the inhibitory site, the Thr497, following PKCζ phosphorylation and activation. Our results suggest that the inhibition by Tie2 of vascular permeability during angiogenesis is due, in part, to the inhibition of NO production. In our second study we distinguished between two types of endothelial cell migration induced by Ang-1 and VEGF. At the opposite of Ang-1 that induced collective and directional cell migration, VEGF promoted individual and random cell motility. We identified β-catenin as a new molecular partner of PKCζ. This association of PKCζ with β-catenin brings the Par6-aPKC polarity complex and the adherens junctions complex to interact with each other at two different locations in endothelial cells. PKCζ/β-catenin complex is located specifically at cell-cell contacts to maintain cohesion and cell adhesion necessary for the collective migration process. This complex was located also at the leading edge of endothelial cells during migration to ensure the directionality and the persistence of migration in response to Ang-1. In addition, inhibition of PKCζ or β-catenin switched the migration mode, in response to Ang-1, from directional and collective to a more random and individual cell migration which resembles the type of migration of endothelial cells exposed to VEGF. These results were confirmed in vivo by aberrant cell polarity and cell adhesion defects of tip cell during vascular sprouting of intersegmental vessels in PKCζ deficient zebrafish embryos. In summary, Ang-1/Tie2 modulates endothelial cell signaling and biological responses induced by VEGF/VEGFR-2. The identification of molecular mechanisms involved in the action of these two receptors, VEGFR-2 and Tie2, and the understanding of the different signaling pathways activated by these molecular complexes will allow us to identify new therapeutic targets for the treatment of angiogenic diseases treatment.

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men, with the incidence rapidly increasing in Europe over the past two decades. Reliable biomarkers for prostate cancer are currently unavailable. Thus, there is an urgent need for improved biomarkers to diagnose prostate cancer at an early stage and to determine the best treatment options. Higher expression of transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) has been reported in patients with aggressive cancer. TGFβ is a multifunctional cytokine that acts as a tumor suppressor during early tumor development, and as a tumor promoter at later stages of cancer. TGFβ signals through the canonical Smad or non-Smad cascade via TGFβ type II and type I receptors. The TGFβ signaling cascade is regulated by various post-translational modifications of its key components. The present investigation aimed to identify a potential function of TRAF6 in TGFβ-induced responses in prostate cancer. The first two articles of this thesis unveil the proteolytic cleavage of TGFβ type I receptor (TβRI), and the biological importance of the liberated TβRI intracellular domain (TβRI-ICD) in the nucleus. We found that tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) polyubiquitinates TβRI, which leads to cleavage of TβRI by tumor necrosis factor alpha converting enzyme (TACE) in a protein kinase C zeta (PKCζ)-dependent manner. Following ectodomain shedding, TβRI undergoes a second cleavage by presenilin 1 (PS1), which liberates TβRI-ICD. TβRI-ICD translocates to the nucleus, where it regulates its own expression as well as expression of the pro-invasive gene Snail1, thereby promoting invasion. We further found that TβRI-ICD associates with Notch intracellular domain (NICD) to drive expression of the pro-invasive gene Snail1, as well as Notch1 ligand Jag1. The third article provides evidence that TRAF6 promotes Lys63-linked polyubiquitination of TβRI at Lys178 in a TGFβ-dependent manner. TβRI polyubiquitination was found to be a prerequisite for TβRI nuclear translocation, and thus for regulation of the genes involved in cell cycle, differentiation, and invasion of prostate cancer cells. In the fourth article we investigated the role of the pro-invasive gene Snail1 in TGFβ-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in prostate cancer cells.

Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in men worldwide, with 10,000 new cases/year diagnosed in Sweden. In this context, there is an urgent need to identify new biomarkers to detect prostate cancer at an initial stage for earlier treatment intervention. Although how prostate cancer develops has not been fully established, the male sex hormone testosterone is a known prerequisite for prostate cancer development. High levels of transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) are prognostically unfavorable in prostate cancer patients. TGFβ is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates a broad range of cellular responses. TGFβ signals through either the canonical Smad or the non-Smad signaling cascade. Cancerous cells develop different strategies to evade defense mechanisms and metastasize to different parts of the body. This thesis unveils one such novel mechanism related to TGFβ signaling. The first two articles provide evidence that TGFβ receptor type I (TβRI) is ubiquitinated by tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) and is cleaved at the ectodomain region by tumor necrosis factor alpha converting enzyme (TACE) in a protein kinase C zeta type-dependent manner. After TβRI is shed from the ectodomain, it undergoes a second cleavage by presenilin 1 (PS1), a γ-secretase catalytic subunit, which liberates the TβRI intracellular domain (TβRI-ICD) from the cell membrane. TRAF6 promotes TGFβ-dependent Lys63-linked polyubiquitination and recruitment of PS1 to the TβRI complex, and facilitates the cleavage of TβRI by PS1 to generate a TβRI-ICD. The TβRI-ICD then translocates to the nucleus, where it binds with the transcriptional co-activator p300 and regulates the transcription of pro-invasive target genes such as Snail1. Moreover, the nuclear translocated TβRI-ICD cooperates with the Notch intracellular domain (NICD), a core component in the Notch signaling pathway, to drive the expression of invasive genes. Interestingly, treatment with g-secretase inhibitors was able to inhibit cleavage of TβRI and inhibit the TGFβ-induced oncogenic pathway in an in vivo prostate cancer xenograft model. In the third article, we identified that Lysine 178 is the acceptor lysine in TβRI that is ubiquitinated by TRAF6. The TβRI K178R mutant was neither ubiquitinated nor translocated to the nucleus, and prevented transcriptional regulation of invasive genes in a dominant negative manner. In the fourth article, we show that TGFβ utilizes the E3-ligase TRAF6 and the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase to phosphorylate c-Jun. In turn, the phosphorylated c-Jun activates p21 and Snail1 in a non-canonical Smad-independent pathway, and thereby promotes invasion in cancerous cells. In summary, we elucidate a new mechanism of TGFβ-induced oncogenic signal transduction in cancer cells in which TRAF6 plays a fundamental role. This opens a new avenue in the field of TGFβ signaling.