Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O objetivo deste trabalho é contribuir com o desenvolvimento de uma técnica baseada em sistemas inteligentes que possibilite a localização exata ou aproximada do ponto de origem de uma Variação de Tensão de Curta Duração (VTCD) (gerada por uma falta) em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica. Este trabalho utiliza um Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) com o intuito de detectar as faltas. Uma vez que a falta é detectada, os sinais de tensão obtidos durante a falta são decompostos em componentes simétricas instantâneas por meio do método proposto. Em seguida, as energias das componentes simétricas são calculadas e utilizadas para estimar a localização da falta. Nesta pesquisa, são avaliadas duas estruturas baseadas em Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs). A primeira é projetada para classificar a localização da falta em um dos pontos possíveis e a segunda é projetada para estimar a distância da falta ao alimentador. A técnica aqui proposta aplica-se a alimentadores trifásicos com cargas equilibradas. No desenvolvimento da mesma, considera-se que há disponibilidade de medições de tensões no nó inicial do alimentador e também em pontos esparsos ao longo da rede de distribuição. O banco de dados empregado foi obtido através de simulações de um modelo de alimentador radial usando o programa PSCAD/EMTDC. Testes de sensibilidade empregando validação-cruzada são realizados em ambas as arquiteturas de redes neurais com o intuito de verificar a confiabilidade dos resultados obtidos. Adicionalmente foram realizados testes com faltas não inicialmente contidas no banco de dados a fim de se verificar a capacidade de generalização das redes. Os desempenhos de ambas as arquiteturas de redes neurais foram satisfatórios e demonstram a viabilidade das técnicas propostas para realizar a localização de faltas em redes de distribuição. / The aim of this work is to contribute to the development of a technique based on intelligent systems that allows the accurate location of the Short Duration Voltage Variations (SDVV) origin in an electrical power distribution system. Once the fault is detected via a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL), voltage signals acquired during the fault are decomposed into instantaneous symmetrical components by the proposed method. Then, the energies of the symmetrical components are calculated and used to estimate the fault location. In this work, two systems based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are evaluated. The first one is designed to classify the fault location into one of predefined possible points and the second is designed to estimate the fault distance from the feeder. The technique herein proposed is applies to three-phase feeders with balanced loads. In addition, it is considered that there is availability of voltage measurements in the initial node of the feeder and also in sparse points along the distribution power grid. The employed database was made using simulations of a model of radial feeder using the PSCAD / EMTDC program. Sensitivity tests employing cross-validation are performed for both approaches in order to verify the reliability of the results. Furthermore, in order to check the generalization capability, tests with faults not originally contained in the database were performed. The performances of both architectures of neural networks were satisfactory and they demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed techniques to perform fault location on distribution grids.

A tendência mundial de crescimento do consumo de energia elétrica requer novas unidades de geração para suprimento de demanda. Além disso, há preocupação na diversificação da matriz energética, e as fontes de energia nem sempre são de fácil acesso aos grandes centros de consumo, o que traz a problemática do transporte de energia elétrica. Sistemas em Corrente Alternada (CA) têm sido empregados na transmissão de energia há décadas, e atualmente os sistemas de transmissão em Corrente Contínua (CC) mostram-se uma opção vantajosa tanto na transmissão ponto a ponto por longas distâncias, quanto para múltiplos terminais, integrando diferentes fontes geradoras de energia. Os conhecidos sistemas de transmissão CC em alta tensão baseados em conversores comutados pela rede têm aplicações consolidadas ao redor do mundo, enquanto que, para a emergente tecnologia dos conversores comutados por largura de pulso (PWM), poucos estudos mostram seu desempenho frente transitórios na rede. A exposição do extenso perímetro das linhas de transmissão às condições geográficas e climatológicas motiva esta pesquisa perante a incidência de impulsos atmosféricos, tendo em vista que a maior parte dos estudos têm avaliado transitórios eletromagnéticos ocasionados por faltas. Para tanto, uma revisão bibliográfica sobre o tema de pesquisa é apresentada, com a descrição dos principais componentes de sistemas HVDC, a análise de sistemas VSC-HVDC, utilizando conversores dois níveis, frente transitórios eletromagnéticos provocados pela incidência direta de descargas atmosféricas tanto na rede CA quanto no elo CC, utilizando o software comercial PSCAD/EMTD para a simulação e modelagem dos para-raios de Óxido de Zinco (ZnO), linha de transmissão, conversores e atuação do controle. / The worlwide trend of growing electricity consumption requires new generation units to supply demand. In addition, there is concern in the diversification of the energy matrix, and energy sources are not always easily accessible to large consumption centers, which brings the problem of transportation of electric energy. Alternating Current (AC) systems have been used in power transmission for decades, and Direct Current (DC) transmission systems are now an advantageous option in both point-to-point transmission over long distances and across multiple terminals, integrating different sources of energy. Known High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems based on Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) have consolidated applications around the world, while for the emerging technology of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) converters, few studies show their network transient performance. The exposition of the extensive perimeter of the transmission lines to the geographic and climatological conditions motivates this research considering the incidence of atmospheric impulses, and that the major part of the studies available have evaluated electromagnetic transients caused by faults. In this context, a literature review on the research topic is presented, with the description of the main components of HVDC systems, the analysis of VSC-based HVDC (VSC-HVDC) systems, using twolevel converters, electromagnetic transients caused by the direct incidence of atmospheric discharges in both the AC network, and in the CC link. The analysis uses the commercial software PSCAD/EMTD for the simulation and modeling of ZnO arresters, transmission line, converters and control actuation.

A tendência mundial de crescimento do consumo de energia elétrica requer novas unidades de geração para suprimento de demanda. Além disso, há preocupação na diversificação da matriz energética, e as fontes de energia nem sempre são de fácil acesso aos grandes centros de consumo, o que traz a problemática do transporte de energia elétrica. Sistemas em Corrente Alternada (CA) têm sido empregados na transmissão de energia há décadas, e atualmente os sistemas de transmissão em Corrente Contínua (CC) mostram-se uma opção vantajosa tanto na transmissão ponto a ponto por longas distâncias, quanto para múltiplos terminais, integrando diferentes fontes geradoras de energia. Os conhecidos sistemas de transmissão CC em alta tensão baseados em conversores comutados pela rede têm aplicações consolidadas ao redor do mundo, enquanto que, para a emergente tecnologia dos conversores comutados por largura de pulso (PWM), poucos estudos mostram seu desempenho frente transitórios na rede. A exposição do extenso perímetro das linhas de transmissão às condições geográficas e climatológicas motiva esta pesquisa perante a incidência de impulsos atmosféricos, tendo em vista que a maior parte dos estudos têm avaliado transitórios eletromagnéticos ocasionados por faltas. Para tanto, uma revisão bibliográfica sobre o tema de pesquisa é apresentada, com a descrição dos principais componentes de sistemas HVDC, a análise de sistemas VSC-HVDC, utilizando conversores dois níveis, frente transitórios eletromagnéticos provocados pela incidência direta de descargas atmosféricas tanto na rede CA quanto no elo CC, utilizando o software comercial PSCAD/EMTD para a simulação e modelagem dos para-raios de Óxido de Zinco (ZnO), linha de transmissão, conversores e atuação do controle. / The worlwide trend of growing electricity consumption requires new generation units to supply demand. In addition, there is concern in the diversification of the energy matrix, and energy sources are not always easily accessible to large consumption centers, which brings the problem of transportation of electric energy. Alternating Current (AC) systems have been used in power transmission for decades, and Direct Current (DC) transmission systems are now an advantageous option in both point-to-point transmission over long distances and across multiple terminals, integrating different sources of energy. Known High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems based on Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) have consolidated applications around the world, while for the emerging technology of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) converters, few studies show their network transient performance. The exposition of the extensive perimeter of the transmission lines to the geographic and climatological conditions motivates this research considering the incidence of atmospheric impulses, and that the major part of the studies available have evaluated electromagnetic transients caused by faults. In this context, a literature review on the research topic is presented, with the description of the main components of HVDC systems, the analysis of VSC-based HVDC (VSC-HVDC) systems, using twolevel converters, electromagnetic transients caused by the direct incidence of atmospheric discharges in both the AC network, and in the CC link. The analysis uses the commercial software PSCAD/EMTD for the simulation and modeling of ZnO arresters, transmission line, converters and control actuation.

The trend of future wind farms moving further offshore requires much higher reliability for each wind turbine in order to reduce maintenance cost. The drive-train system and power electronic converter system have been identified as critical sub-assemblies that are subject to higher failure rates than the other sub-assemblies in a wind turbine. Modern condition monitoring techniques may help schedule the maintenance and reduce downtime. However, when it comes to offshore wind turbines, it is more crucial to reduce the failure rates (or reduce the stresses) for the wind turbines during operation since the harsh weather and a frequently inaccessible environment will dramatically reduce their availability once a failure happens. This research examines the mechanical, electrical and thermal stresses in the sub-assemblies of a doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine and how to reduce them by improved control strategies. The DFIG control system (the rotor-side and the grid-side converter control) as well as the wind turbine control system are well established. The interactions of these control systems have been investigated. This research examines several further strategies to reduce the mechanical and electrical stresses. The control system's coordination with the protection schemes (crowbar and dc-chopper) during a grid fault is presented as well. An electro-thermal model of the power converter has been developed to integrate with the DFIG wind turbine model, for the evaluation of the thermal stresses under different operating states and control schemes. The main contributions of this thesis are twofold. A first contribution is made by providing all the control loops with well-tuned controllers in a more integrated methodology. The dynamics of these controllers are determined from their mathematical models to minimize the interference between different control-loops and also to reduce the electrical transients. This thesis proposes a coordination strategy for the damping control, pitch control and crowbar protection which significantly reduces the mechanical oscillations. On the other hand, an integrated model of the wind turbine and converter electro-thermal system is established that can illustrate the performance integration with different control strategies.

Rapidly growing Inverter- Based Resources (IBR) have different fault properties compared to Synchronous Generators (SG). Therefore, it is necessary to study the fault behavior of systems that contain different types of IBR and compare it to the conventional system responses in order to understand what steps should be taken to adapt conventional protection settings for new types of sources. For a two bus model, it is found out that sequence profiles in a system with one IBR are different from those observed in conventional system. Thermal and electrical limitations of the power electronics reduce the fault current from the IBR significantly, driving negative sequence current to small values compared to conventional sources. This is true for all studied types of IBR. Moreover, if IBR is connected to the grid through one line only, during Three Phase Fault (3hp) it is possible to lose synchronism with grid due to erroneous estimation of the grid angle through the Phase-Locked Loop (PLL). Verification of the obtained results is made through comparison to the Fault Recordings taken from the protection relays placed at substations. It is shown that for some faults simulation results can predict the behavior of symmetrical components in the network whereas for others they do not. To explain the latter behavior modifications to the sequence networks are proposed. / Snabbt växande inverterbaserade resurser (IBR) har olika felinmatningsegenskaper jämfört med synkrongeneratorer (SG). Därför är det nödvändigt att studera felbeteende hos system som innehåller olika typer av IBR och jämför det med konventionella källor för att kunna förstå vilka steg som ska göras för att anpassa konventionella skyddsinställningar för nya typer av källor. Under litteraturöversikten introduktion till det fast jordade systemet och dess speciella fall med isolerad transformatorjordning är klar. Kort introduktion till den studerade IBR och typer av simulerade fel görs också. För en tvåbussmodell har det visat sig att sekvensprofiler i ett system med en IBR skiljer sig från de som observerats i konventionella system. Termisk och elektrisk begränsningar i kraftelektroniska komponenter minskar felströmmen från IBR avsevärt och driver negativ sekvensström till små värden jämfört med konventionella källor. Detta gäller för alla studerade typer av IBR. Dessutom, om IBR är ansluten till nätet endast genom en linje, är det möjligt under trefasfel (3hp) att tappa synkronisering med nätet på grund av felaktig uppskattning av fasvinkeln genom styrsystemets faslåst slinga (PLL). Verifiering av de erhållna resultaten görs genom jämförelse med Fel Inspelningar från reläet placerade på transformatorstationer. Det visas att för vissa fel simuleringsresultat kan förutsäga symmetriska komponenters beteende i nätverket medan andra inte gör det. För att förklara de senare beteendena föreslås modifieringar i sekvensnätverket.

This paper deals with possible ways of voltage regulation. Theoretical part includes a search of published methods and the available voltage regulators. Acquired theoretical knowledge has been applied in the development of mathematical models of two selected controllers applied to the testing network. The result of this work is a summary of the outcomes of dynamic simulations with two selected regulators at various locations in testing network. Comparing the results of dynamic simulation for two selected states was chosen the most appropriate regulator and its optimal location in testing network.

The main circuit equipment in an HVDC station must be rated for continuous operation as well as for stresses during ground faults and other short circuits. The component impedances are thus selected for proper operation during both continuous operation and short circuit events. Normally, Electromagnetic Transient (EMT) simulations are performed for the short circuit current ratings, which can leadto time consuming iterations for the optimization of impedance values. Hence, sufficiently correct and handy formulas are useful. For that reason, in this research work, firstly, a thorough literature study is done to gain a deep understanding of the modular multilevel converter (MMC) and its behaviour after aDC pole-to-pole short circuit fault. Two associated simulation models are designed in PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software. The focus of this thesis is on DC pole-topoleshort circuit in Symmetric Monopole HVDC VSC Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC). The desired analytical expression for the steady state fault current is determined byusing mesh analysis and also by applying KCL and it is verified by doing a set of simulations in PSCAD. A detailed sensitivity study has been done in the PSCAD simulation software to understand the influence of the AC converter reactor inductance and the DC smoothing reactor inductance on the steady state as well as peak fault current respectively. From the sensitivity study, the simulated values of peak factor have been obtained. By means of the ratio in between DC side inductance (L_DC) and AC side inductance (L_AC), and by performing a number of calculations, the desired expression for the peak factor is derived. As a result, the peak fault current can be calculated. The calculated value of the peak fault current from the derived formula is compared to the simulated value and validated. An over-estimation is considered for the rating of the equipment. Along with that, the analysis of the effect of impedances of equipment and systems are done and also verified, to better judge the accuracy of the result. In the result, it is found that, the error margin obtained from the derived analytical expression for the steady state value is within 2% of the PSCAD simulated value, which means the error can be safely ignored. Similarly, the value obtained from the derived formula for the peak fault current is within 4% over-estimation margin of the PSCAD simulated value, which is quite good in terms of cost estimation for the rating of the components.