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Background: Although prior research has established intimate partner violence (IPV) as a widespread public health problem in the U.S., little is known about IPV prevalence and help seeking behaviors in undocumented Latina immigrants Purpose: This study seeks to contribute new knowledge to the study of IPV by describing IPV prevalence, help seeking behaviors, and health outcomes of undocumented Spanish-speaking immigrant women who have experienced lifetime intimate partner violence. . Methods: Two hundred undocumented Spanish-speaking women were recruited from urban healthcare centers to complete a survey about women's health to assess IPV, major depressive disorder (MDD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and health-related quality (HRQL) of life. Qualitative interviews were completed with community health workers serving this population and immigrant survivors of violence. Results: Sixty-nine (34.5%) of the women in the sample screened positive for lifetime IPV and of these women, 56.6% sought help from either formal or informal sources as a result of the violence. Of the entire sample, 41.5% endorsed major depressive disorder and 16% endorsed post-traumatic stress disorder. In the unadjusted logistic regression models, IPV survivors were more likely to endorse MDD and PTSD and report low mental health HRQL scores (OR: 2.27, 3.45, 2.19, respectively). In fully adjusted models, only the association between IPV and PTSD remained significant (OR: 4.143, CI: 1.21-14.24). Discussion: The findings highlight several help-seeking barriers among undocumented Spanish-speaking immigrant women who are the survivors of IPV. Language barriers and fears of family separation resulting from deportation and loss of child custody are unique help-seeking barriers for undocumented immigrants. There was an overall high prevalence of MDD and PTSD in the sample population, and an increased risk of PTSD in IPV survivors compared with non-survivors. Our findings highlight the need for quality mental health and trauma-informed services tailored to the needs of undocumented Spanish-speaking immigrant women, including increased access to mental health services in primary healthcare settings. Health and social service organizations serving this population should use this information to inform IPV treatment and prevention programs for women. / Public Health

Intimate partner violence is also known as domestic violence or spouse abuse. It affects the physical, psychological, social, and financial well-being of many people around the world. Many researchers from health/medical, social, and psychological fields have studied intimate partner violence in an effort to prevent it or to improve overall health and well-being among victims. Ideally, decisions are best influenced by high quality evidence. However, little attention has focused on the quality of this research. This thesis focuses on the theme of transparency relating to study quality, specifically highlighting non-publication bias, biases related to outcome and study methodologies, and overall reporting quality in previously published IPV research. These lessons learned from this research have informed, in part, an original study on intimate partner violence. Finally, this thesis concludes with insights to improve methodological quality and transparency for researchers in the intimate partner violence field. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

A thesis submitted to the school of graduate studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy. / Experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with a wide range of mental and physical health conditions that often have profound and enduring consequences in the lives of people, families and communities who are affected. Evidence suggests that many of these health concerns can be mitigated with timely access to medical care which addresses patient safety and needs for support. This has led to health policymakers framing IPV as a “health issue” which physicians are uniquely situated to address. Previous research suggests, however, that many physicians are ill-equipped to respond to patients who have experienced IPV, giving rise to questions about how physicians learn about IPV in the course of their training and how this training might be enhanced in order to improve medical care for people affected by IPV. This dissertation is comprised of three original studies that lie at the nexus of health policy and health professions education scholarship. The first study combines environmental scanning and critical discourse analysis to examine how physicians’ roles related to IPV are represented in training resources created for a Canadian medical audience. The second study uses qualitative description to identify physicians’ perceptions of their own roles in caring for patients affected by IPV and highlights the sites and sources of insight that are impactful in shaping these perceptions. The third study integrates key informant technique and interpretive description to synthesize recommendations from stakeholders outside of medicine about physicians’ roles in addressing IPV, and opportunities to improve medical education and practice in the future. Together, these studies offer a critical perspective on broader implications of constructing IPV as a “health issue” that informs practice for physicians, medical educators, researchers, policymakers, and organizers working to improve health care for people affected by IPV. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / People who experience intimate partner violence (IPV) are at a higher risk of experiencing a wide range of serious and long-lasting health issues. Politicians and other policymakers framing IPV as a “health issue” have suggested that doctors are well-placed to address these concerns and to support patients who are dealing with IPV, but research suggests that many doctors lack knowledge or skills that are needed to address IPV with appropriate sensitivity. This dissertation examines how doctors learn about IPV in the course of their medical training by 1) analyzing how doctors’ roles related to IPV are presented in educational resources and policy documents, 2) interviewing doctors about their perceptions of IPV and their related training, and 3) talking to people who do work related to IPV outside of medicine about their suggestions for improving medical education in the future. Taken together, the studies that make up this dissertation can help to inform educators, politicians, and other policymakers working to improve health care for people affected by IPV.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) in sexual and gender minority relationships is an underexplored and misunderstood phenomenon. Much of what has been investigated has explored IPV from a heterosexual lens, without taking into account the complexities of these relationship dynamics. Further, outcomes of IPV traditionally focus on negative sequelae, such as depression or anxiety. In this study, we examined the propensity to forgive partner abuse as a means of adaptively coping with the trauma. Further, we looked at resilience as a possible factor in the process of forgiveness. We hypothesized that psychological resilience significantly moderates the forgiveness process in sexual and gender minorities who have experienced IPV. Our sample of 77 gender- and sexual-minority participants completed measures of psychological and physical IPV, resilience, and forgiveness. A regression analysis found our model accounted for 36% of the variance in forgiveness of self (adj. R2=.36, F (4, 72) = 10.34, p < .01) and 20% of forgiveness of others (adj. R2=.20, F (4, 72) = 5.01, p < .01). However, there was no significant moderating effect, nor was IPV a significant contributor to forgiveness. Results suggest trauma does not influence one’s likelihood to forgive, though some personal trait, such as resilience, is more likely to contribute to the forgiveness process. Implications are discussed.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an extremely prevalent and concerning social issue, with limited current intervention and prevention strategies. Batterer intervention programs (BIPs) have demonstrated some small effects of programs in reducing offender recidivism, however there is a growing understanding that not all offenders respond similarly to batterer intervention and the problem of IPV persists. Restorative justice programs including impact panels may be an important addition to BIPs, but research is extremely limited on impact panel effectiveness and whether panels are appropriate for IPV or pose additional safety risks to survivors. The current study consists of a naturalistic mixed-methods evaluation of the use of IPV impact panels in the context of batterer intervention. Data collection methods include an ethnographic inquiry of the program setting and participant experiences, archival data analysis of offender responses to the panel (N = 287), and focus groups (k = 4) with survivors, offenders, and BIP providers to investigate the panel's impact on survivors and offenders and generate potential indicators of panel outcomes for survivors and offenders. Findings suggest that panel impacts on survivors include reaching new understandings, healing, and empowerment; panel impacts on offenders include connection with survivor speakers, reaching new understandings, and healing. Implications, limitations, and future aims of this program of research are discussed.

This dissertation identified and developed indicators of a new potential predictor of relationship satisfaction and intimate partner violence (IPV): discrepancies between the ideal and perceived gendered characteristics of romantic partners. Past research has overlooked the implicitly gendered nature of these "partner-ideals." Two pilot studies were conducted to develop measures of gendered partner-ideals and -perceptions based on existing measures of gender ideology. The main study examined survey data collected online from adults (n = 643) living in the U.S. who were in a heterosexual romantic relationship for at least six months. Three main hypotheses were tested regarding the associations among gender ideology, gendered partner-ideals, gendered partner-perceptions, gendered partner-ideal discrepancies, relationship satisfaction, and experiences with IPV. While confirmatory factor analyses supported the reliability of the new measures of masculine-ideals and -perceptions, results did not support the hypothesized factor structure of the feminine measures. Thus, only hypotheses utilizing women's data were tested. This measurement limitation resulted in an unanticipated focus on women's IPV perpetration for Hypothesis Two. However, these data are valuable in their uniqueness. Hypothesis One was supported: women's masculinity ideology positively correlated with the corresponding masculine-ideal for each subscale of the respective measures as well as for the aggregate measures. Tests of Hypothesis Two showed that women's masculine-ideal discrepancies predicted their emotional abuse perpetration, but not their physical assault or injury perpetration, mediated by relationship satisfaction. However, this effect was small. Hypothesis Three had mixed support. Women's aggregate masculine-partner perceptions were positively associated with their reports of emotional abuse victimization. Additionally, women's reports of most types of IPV victimization positively correlated with perceptions of their male partners' conformity to the specific norms of negativity toward sexual minorities and restrictive emotionality. Contributions of this dissertation and implications of the results are discussed. A major contribution is the creation of masculine-ideals and -perceptions measures that can be used in future research on relationships. Study results suggest that gendered partner-ideals and -perceptions, beyond gender-ideology, have relevance to the functioning of romantic relationships--including both relationship satisfaction and some kinds of IPV. Future research should continue to investigate the validity of the created measures and explore the possibility of using discrepancies between gendered partner-ideals and -perceptions to prevent and intervene in abusive romantic relationships.

Psychological aggression is present in as many as 89-97% of college women’s intimate relationships (Cercone, Beach, & Arias, 2005; Riggs & O’Leary, 1996). Victimization has been linked to negative physical and mental health consequences including depression, anxiety, and chronic pain (Coker, Smith, Bethea, King, & McKeown, 2000; Derrick, Testa, & Leonard, 2014; Pico-Alfonso et al., 2006). Psychological aggression also serves as a risk factor for future or continued physical intimate partner violence (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014), which can result in bruises, broken bones, or in extreme cases, even death. Parental modeling of appropriate relationship behaviors may be an important factor in young adult women’s learning how to behave in their own intimate relationships. Studies have produced mixed results when assessing the role of engendered cultural influences on this phenomenon, with many reporting that women holding traditional gender role beliefs are at an increased risk for experiencing relationship aggression (Brownridge, 2002; CDC, 2014; Eaton & Matamala, 2014; Fitzpatrick, Salgado, Suvak, King, & King, 2004). The current dissertation seeks to investigate the roles of traditional, culturally informed gender role beliefs in the intergenerational modeling of psychological aggression in Hispanic college women’s intimate relationships. A total of 687 students from a large Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) in the southeastern United States participated in this study. The results of Study 1 showed that parental use of psychological aggression and participants’ beliefs consistent with caballerismo influenced Hispanic college women’s victimization in their intimate relationships. The results of Study 2 indicated that parental use of psychological aggression, participants’ beliefs consistent with marianismo, and participants’ beliefs sanctioning their own use of psychological aggression toward their boyfriends significantly influenced Hispanic college women’s perpetration of this type of aggression in their intimate relationships. The findings from this dissertation are important as few studies have examined intimate partner violence or conflict strategies in Hispanic college populations, despite the fact that they constitute the largest group of ethnic minority women on campuses today (Fry, 2011). Further, they contribute to our ability to effectively critique traditional gender beliefs used to examine Hispanic women’s behavioral and psychological outcomes.

The aim of this essay is to examine how female violence against men expresses itself. In addition the intent is to investigate how this is explained and described in society as well as how social efforts are designed towards male victims. Additionally the aim is to examine why men’s violence against women is more attentive than the opposite. The method used in this essay is a literature review constituted by previous research and reports. This essay suggests that men and women are exposed to domestic violence in the same extent but the violence differ between the genders. Men are more likely to be exposed to psychological violence whereas women are more likely to be exposed to physical violence. Consequences followed is similar between male and female victims. However, the violence that ends with a deadly outcome seems to mainly affect women. According to prevailing norms in society men is expected to be strong and superior which means they are not seen as victims, since victims are characterized by weakness and inferiority. Therefore, men refrain from seeking help and these normative conceptions also appears to be the reason why men does not receive the help they need. Because of this the violence to which men are exposed can not be noticed. As women report their victimization and due to the fact that they are exposed to severe violence than men, this violence is automatically paid more attention.

Empirical research in the areas of substance abuse (Beattie & Longabaugh, 1997; Beattie & Longabaugh, 1999; Falkin & Strauss, 2002; Gordon & Zrull, 1991; Humphreys & Noke, 1997; Mohr et al., 2001; Zywiak, Longabaugh & Wirtz, 2002) and general antisocial behavior (Browning, 2002; Capaldi, Dishion, Stoolmiller & Yoerger, 2001; Dishion, Patterson & Griesler, 1994) and a theoretical model of sexual assault perpetration (DeKeseredy & Schwartz, 1993; DeKeseredy, 1990a; DeKeseredy, 1988; Schwartz & DeKeseredy, 1997) highlight the role of peer groups' attitudes and behaviors in shaping those of their members. Intimate partner violence (IPV) among men's parents (Arriaga & Foshee, 2004; Doumas, Margolin & John, 1994; Silverman & Wiliamson, 1997) and peer groups (Abbey, McAuslan, Zawacki, Brown & Messman-Moore, 2010; Clinton, & Buck, 2001; Capaldi et al., 2001; Raghavan, Rajah, Gentile, Collado, & Kavanagh, 2009; Reed, Silverman, Raj, Rothman, Decker, Gottlieb, Molnar, & Miller, 2008; Silverman & Williamson, 1997) is also related to their own perpetration of IPV, specifically. However, existing research is yet to examine the extent to which men participating in batterer intervention programs (BIPs), a common form of treatment for perpetrators of IPV, receive messages about the perpetration of IPV from within their social networks, or whether or how BIP participants contribute to dialogues about abuse within their social networks. The purposes of the current study were to (1) describe the members of BIP participants' social networks and the ways in which they communicate about IPV with BIP participants, and (2) to describe how BIP participants address IPV with the members of their social networks, and the social network members with whom they do so. Focus groups with BIP facilitators and participants were conducted to develop inventories of abuse-relevant behaviors. One hundred and two BIP participants were surveyed to describe the members of their social networks, how the members of their social networks address the perpetration of IPV, and how BIP participants communicate about IPV to the members of their social networks. A series of multilevel models were tested to examine the characteristics of BIP participants' social networks and patterns of communication about abuse therein. An additional focus group provided interpretations of the quantitative findings. Findings reveal that the current sample of BIP participants has social networks that are smaller than those of the general population, and which consist of their current and former partners, friends and roommates, bosses and coworkers, family of origin, children, in-laws, and others. Participants' network members engage in behaviors that convey both pro-abuse and anti-abuse attitudes to BIP participants, participants engage in indirect anti-abuse behaviors with their social network members, and participants are less satisfied with network members who engage in more pro-abuse behaviors. Primary implications of the current study include (1) the understanding of BIP participants as bystanders who actively intervene in abuse-relevant social norms in their social networks; (2) a detailed picture of how and from whom BIP participants receive support for the perpetration of IPV; and (3) the creation of two new behavioral inventories that may be used to explore patterns and effects of abuse relevant communication in greater depth.