We hypothesized that beef patties formulated with the addition of a beef fat, plant oil and rosemary extract (antioxidant) blend would increase unsaturated fatty acid content and maintain desirable sensory attributes as compared to 10 and 20% fat control beef patties. Treatment patties were formulated by combining beef trimmings (6% fat) with a lipid blend mixture (4% or 14% addition, respectively) containing 57% beef tallow, 0.3% rosemary extract and 43% of either high oleic safflower oil (SO), olive oil (OO), or corn oil (CO) to achieve a total fat content of 10 or 20%. Treatment patties were similar to control patties for lipid oxidation at 0 and 3 d of refrigerated (2oC) storage and up to 56 d of frozen (-10oC) storage. Cooked lipid blend patties at 10 or 20% fat content were similar to or higher, respectively, than control patties for juiciness and were no different for other sensory attributes evaluated. At 10 and 20% fat levels, oleic acid (18:1) in cooked SO patties (46.1 and 50.3%, respectively) and OO patties (43.8 and 48.1%, respectively) was higher than the control (37.3 and 37.6%, respectively). Unsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratios at the 10 and 20% fat levels were higher in SO (1.37 and 1.60, respectively) and CO (1.40 and 1.48, respectively) patties than the control (0.97 and 0.94, respectively). The incorporation of nutritionally enhanced lipid blends increased unsaturated fatty acid content and maintained desirable sensory attributes of beef patties while suppressing lipid oxidation.

This study determined how quality grade and degree of doneness influence the development of beef flavor compounds among whole muscle and ground patties. Proximate composition, pH, cooking duration, neutral and polar lipid fatty acids, free and total amino acids, total reducing sugars, and volatile compounds were evaluated in beef strip steaks and ground patties of Longissimus lumborum from three USDA quality grades (Prime, Low Choice, and Standard; n=8 per quality grade) and six degrees of doneness (4, 25, 55, 60, 71, and 77°C). In the split-plot experiment, quality grade was the whole-plot, product-type was a sub-plot, and degree of doneness was the sub-sub-plot. The 3-way interaction of quality grade, degree of doneness, and product type impacted moisture (P = 0.004) and protein content (P = 0.006); pH (P < 0.001); neutral and polar lipid fatty acids (P ≤ 0.048); free and total amino acids (P ≤ 0.044); total reducing sugars (P < 0.001); and volatile compounds (P ≤ 0.029). The 2-way interaction of quality grade and degree of doneness impacted free amino acids (P ≤ 0.036); PUFA within the neutral lipid fraction (P ≤ 0.033); fatty acids within the polar lipid fraction (P ≤ 0.043); volatile compounds (P ≤ 0.038); and the total fat percentage (P = 0.046). The 2-way interaction of quality grade and product type impacted fatty acids within the neutral lipid fraction (P ≤ 0.042); fatty acids within the polar lipid fraction (P ≤ 0.015); and volatile compounds (P ≤ 0.047). The 2-way interaction of product type and degree of doneness affected fatty acids within the neutral lipid fraction (P ≤ 0.046); fatty acids within the polar lipid fraction (P ≤ 0.035); free amino acids (P ≤ 0.005) and total amino acids (P ≤ 0.004); volatile compounds (P ≤ 0.029); and cooking duration (P < 0.001). Overall the results of this study indicated that quality grade, grinding, and cooking have interacting effects on flavor related compounds. Thus, each factor must be considered during any model development which aims to predict beef flavor.

Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) plant is an edible leguminous vine. This study focused on the utilization of kudzu starch and kudzu root extract in beef patties. We hypothesized that a) physicochemical and sensory properties of beef patties formulated with kudzu starch, is comparable to those of potato starch; b) the kudzu root extract is rich in isoflavones, and isoflavones quantity is not affected during cooking. In Study I, beef patties were formulated using modified commercially available kudzu and potato starch each at 2.0, 4.0 and 6.0% (wt/wt). Starch treated beef patties were compared with respect to change in physical, chemical, color, textural and consumer responses as affected by starch type (kudzu, potato) and starch level (2, 4, 6 %). Additionally starch treated patties were compared to all-beef patties. Kudzu starch treated patties were significantly lower in moisture % (62.7 vs. 64.4), higher in fat % (9.1 vs. 8.3), protein % (26.3 vs. 24.7), hardness (9.3, vs. 6.9 N) and gumminess (3.7 vs. 1.9 N) compared to potato starch treated patties. Starch treated samples were significantly lighter in color and had lower (P <0.05) expressible moisture compared to all-beef patties. Patties with 6% kudzu or potato starch were significantly higher in cooking yield than all-beef patties. No significant difference existed in consumer overall liking scores of kudzu or potato starch treatments and control beef patties with no added starch. The overall liking scores ranged between 5 ‘neither like nor dislike’ and 6 ‘like slightly’ for all samples. In study II, kudzu root extract was prepared, and using HPLC, ten isoflavones were detected with puerarin and daidzein accounting for 95% of the total isoflavones. Beef patties were formulated with kudzu root extract at 0, 1, and 3% (wt/wt), and four isoflavones were detected in uncooked and cooked patties, considering other isoflavones diluted to undetectable levels in patties. Results indicated that cooking did not change the amount of isoflavones in beef patties. This study illustrates the characteristics of kudzu starch compared to conventionally used potato starch in meat model system and verifies the thermal stability of isoflavones in beef patties.

Pour cette étude, dans un premier temps, une caractérisation physico-chimique et rhéologique des amidons natifs de deux cultivars locaux de pomme de terre (Sipiera et Tselefou) et de trois de manioc (2425, 4115 et Seedling) a été faite avant leur incorporation dans du pâté de bœuf à 20, 30, 40 et 50g/kg de mêlée. L’influence du type d’amidon et de leur taux d’incorporation sur les propriétés physico-chimiques et texturales des pâtés a été évaluée. Les résultats ont montré que les propriétés physiques, fonctionnelles et rhéologiques des amidons sont étroitement liées à leur origine botanique. L’Analyse en Composantes Principales (ACP) laisse paraître que de tous les amidons natifs, celui du cultivar de pomme de terre Sipiera se rapproche le plus du témoin. Une fois incorporé dans les pâtés ; l’ACP de tous les paramètres texturaux des pâtés aux amidons natifs indique que le pâté à l’amidon du cultivar de manioc Seedling à de 40g/kg de mêlée (PS40), est celui qui se rapproche le plus du pâté témoin. Dans un deuxième temps, les amidons de pomme de terre (Sipiera) et de manioc (2425) ont été sélectionnés pour la modification (acétylation). Ces amidons acétylés ont par la suite fait l’objet des mêmes analyses que les amidons natifs et incorporés dans les pâtés aux mêmes taux que les amidons natifs. Des résultats, il ressort que les propriétés fonctionnelles des amidons natifs sont fortement influencées par l’acétylation et le temps d’acétylation. Les essais d’incorporation des amidons acétylés dans les pâtés montrent que l’amidon Sipiera/20 à un taux d’incorporation de 40g/kg de mêlée ne se distingue pas significativement (p>0,05) du pâté témoin / The first part of this work deals with the physico-chemical and rheological characterisation of native starches of two local cultivars of Irish potatoes (Sipiera and Tselefou) and three cultivars of cassava (2425, 4115 and Seedling) before they are incorporated into beef patty at 20, 30, 40 and 50g/kg ground meat. The influence of the type of starch and the amount of incorporation on the physico-chemical and textural properties of patties was evaluated. Results show that the physical, functional and rheological properties of starches are closely related to their botanical origin. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that Irish potato cultivar Sipiera had properties that were close to reference. The PCA of all the textural properties of patties with native starches show that patty from starch of cassava cultivar Seedling at 40g/kg (PS40) was closest to the reference. In the second part of the work, the starch Sipiera and 2425 were selected for modification. These two starches were then acetylated for 10 and 20min. and this permitted us to have Sipiera/10, Sipiera/20, 2425/10 and 2425/20. The functional properties of the native starches were however strongly influenced by acetylation and the time of acetylation. Incorporation trials of this acetylated starches at different amounts in patty showed that Sipiera/20 starch at an incorporation rate of 40g/kg ground meat is not significantly different from the reference patty

O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial antioxidante, caracterizar a composição fenólica e avaliar o efeito antioxidante do extrato de pele de amendoim (EPA) em produtos cárneos: hambúrguer de frango cozido, hambúrguer de ovelha armazenado em atmosfera modificada, salchichón espanhol com óleo de peixe microencapsulado em matriz de konjac e em patê de fígado suíno. O EPA possuía conteúdo fenólico total de 32,6 mg EAG/g pele seca, a capacidade de sequestrar radicais de 46,5 &micro;L (EC50) e capacidade redutora (reagente FRAP) de 26,5 &micro;mol de equivalente Trolox/g pele seca. As proantocianidinas são os principais compostos fenólicos presentes no EPA. A adição do EPA (70 mg EAG/kg) em hambúrguer de frango cozido reduziu a oxidação lipídica e inibiu a perda de cor vermelha durante 15 dias de estocagem a 1 °C, porém o produto se tornou mais escuro devido a adição do EPA. No hambúrguer de ovelha cru armazenado em atmosfera modificada (80% O2 e 20% CO2) durante 20 dias a 2 °C, o EPA (1000 ppm) preveniu a diminuição da intensidade da cor vermelha, a oxidação lipídica e de proteínas além de reduzir a percepção de off-odor. Porém o desenvolvimento de microrganismos viáveis totais (MVT), enterobactérias (Enterobacteriaceae), psedomonas (Pseudomonas spp.) e as bactérias ácido láticas, luminosidade, valor de pH e ácidos graxos livres (AGL) não foram afetados pela adição do EPA. O conteúdo total de compostos voláteis derivados da oxidação lipídica foi similar nos lotes controle e EPA. Além do EPA (2000 ppm), o extrato de folha de castanha (EFC, 2000 ppm), extrato de resíduo de cervejaria (ERC, 2000 ppm) e o antioxidante sintético hidroxitolueno butilado (BHT, 50 ppm) foram adicionados ao salchichón com óleo de peixe microencapsulado em matriz de konjac. Os antioxidantes naturais reduziram a formação de carbonilas e conteúdo total de compostos voláteis derivados da oxidação lipídica, porém aumentaram a quantidade de AGL. A oxidação lipídica e o valor de vermelho foram similares entre todos os tratamentos e particularmente para o lote EFC menor luminosidade e valor de pH foram observados. O patê de fígado suíno com mistura de óleos mais saudáveis (óleo peixe e de oliva) foi elaborado com os antioxidantes ERC, EFC e EPA (todos a 1000 ppm). Não foram observadas diferenças significativas marcantes devido a presença dos antioxidantes naturais no valor de pH, cor instrumental, oxidação lipídica, AGL e compostos voláteis derivados da oxidação lipídica do patê estocado a 4 °C por 160 dias. A composição centesimal de todos os produtos cárneos analisados não foi alterada em função do EPA. Desta forma, o EPA possui potencial para ser aplicado em hambúrguer cozido de frango e hambúrguer de carne de ovelha armazenado em atmosfera modificada. No caso do salchichón com óleo de peixe encasulado em matriz de konjac, os antioxidantes naturais testados podem proteger contra reações oxidativas, porém a adição destes extratos naturais não é recomendada para o patê de fígado suíno com óleos mais saudáveis. / This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant potential, phenolic profile characterization and antioxidant effect of peanut skin extract (PSE) in meat products: cooked chicken patties, raw sheep patties storage in modified atmosphere, Spanish salchichón elaborated with encapsulated n-3 long chain fatty acids in konjac glucomannan matrix and pig liver pâté manufactured with healthy oils. PSE presented total phenolic content of 32.6 mg GAE/g dry skin, radical scavenge potential of 46.5 &micro;L (EC50) and reducing power (FRAP reagent) of 26,5 &micro;mol Trolox equivalent/g dry skin. The major phenolic compounds were proanthocyanidins in PSA. The manufacture of cooked chicken patties with PSE (70 mg GAE/kg) reduced lipid oxidation and inhibited the loss of redness during 15 days at 1 °C, but reduced the luminosity of patties. In raw sheep patties storage in modified atmosphere (80% O2 e 20% CO2) during 20 days at 2 °C, PSE (1000 ppm) inhibited the loss of red color, lipid and protein oxidation and also reduced the perception of off-odor. However, PSE did not affect total viable counts, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas spp. and Lactic acid bacteria growth, luminosity, pH value and free fatty acids (FFA) content. The lipid derived volatile compounds of PSE batch were similar to control patties. In Spanish salchichón experiment other natural extracts were also evaluated: beer residue extract (BRE, 2000 ppm), chestnut leaf extract (CLE, 2000 ppm) besides PSE (2000 ppm) and butyl hydroxyltoluene (BHT, 50 ppm). In antioxidant batches, carbonyl formation and lipid derived volatile compounds were reduced, although a significant increase in FFA content was observed in these batches. Lipid oxidation and red color were similar among all batches and particularly for CLE batch the luminosity and pH values were lower than other batches. Differently, in pig liver pâté with healthier oil combination, BRE, CLE and PSE (all at 1000 ppm) did not display remarkable significant differences in pH value, instrumental color, lipid oxidation, FFA e lipid derived volatile compounds during 160 days of storage at 4 °C. The proximate composition of all manufactured meat products were not affected by PSE or natural/synthetic antioxidant. In this sense, PSE is suggested to be applied in chicken and raw sheep patties in modified atmosphere. Evaluated natural antioxidants are suggested to be used in Spanish salchichón to prevent oxidative damage, but none of them are recommended as antioxidant additive in pig liver pâté.

Bacterial responses to environmental stresses may be easily observed and predicted under controlled laboratory conditions. However, realistic conditions encountered during manufacturing, in retail or in households may cause unpredicted responses of spoilage or pathogenic bacteria. Therefore it is essential to identify and understand the microbial dynamics under such conditions. The overall aim of the present study was to simulate the most common environmental conditions and consumer-style practices during storage or preparation of Ready-to-Eat (RTE) and Ready-to-Cook (RTC) products in the domestic environment, and predict the microbial dynamics which may deteriorate the quality or compromise the safety of these foods. Aiming to develop a unified mathematical model for the prediction of the growth of the specific spoilage microorganisms (SSOs), the spoilage pattern of three RTE acidic spreads of low pH was described in relation to microbial, physicochemical and molecular changes during storage. Results showed that the spoilage profile of the products was primarily affected by the initial pH and the storage temperature, despite the differences in their formulation. These findings enabled the assessment of two unified models (polynomial and Ratkowsky) for the prediction of the growth of lactic acid bacteria (LAB; SSOs) in such acidic spreads, using only the initial pH, the concentration of undissociated acetic acid and the storage temperature. The models were validated under realistic conditions in household refrigerators. Despite the abrupt fluctuations of the temperature during validation procedure, they both were able to adequately predict the growth of LAB in the spreads. However, the initial contamination level was proved to be necessary and crucial for the accurate prediction of microbial dynamics. The time-temperature profiles of the validation procedure revealed that the suggested storage conditions were not followed promptly and, therefore, concerns were raised on the effect of such consumer mishandlings on the safety of foods. Therefore, the responses of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7 to the stresses encountered during frozen storage, thawing and cooking of ground beef, simulating typical scenarios followed by the consumers, were evaluated. The results revealed that the guidelines issued by the food safety authorities lack of some specific points that may affect the safety of the final product, such as the duration of frozen storage and the method of cooking. In particular, it was found that the heat resistance of E. coli O157:H7 was likely increased after long term frozen storage, while cooking in pan-grill did not ensure the safety of the final product, even when cooked at the suggested temperature. As shown in the first study, the initial contamination level played a significant role on the predictions of the models and further on the shelf-life of the products. Therefore, the dynamics of realistically low initial populations of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium versus higher levels of the pathogens (such those used during in vitro trials) in RTE fresh-cut salads were compared. In addition, any potential uncertainty sources for the growth potential of the pathogens in broth-based simulations were investigated. Results showed that the growth variability of low inocula is highly affected by the marginal storage temperatures, the indigenous microflora and the availability of nutrients. Because of this, growth from low populations showed the likelihood to exceed the growth derived from unrealistically high inocula, suggesting that ―fail-dangerous‖ implications may derive from such challenge tests. Data derived from this part were compared with broth-based simulations and the results showed that high uncertainty should be expected when extrapolating such predictions from low initial populations in fresh-cut salads, due to the various factors affecting the microbial growth on a real food, which are (inevitably) ignored by broth-based models. Overall, the present Thesis highlights the significant impact of consumer mishandlings on the food safety and quality of foods and contributes to the identification of unpredicted potential risk origins in the domestic environment.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial antioxidante, caracterizar a composição fenólica e avaliar o efeito antioxidante do extrato de pele de amendoim (EPA) em produtos cárneos: hambúrguer de frango cozido, hambúrguer de ovelha armazenado em atmosfera modificada, salchichón espanhol com óleo de peixe microencapsulado em matriz de konjac e em patê de fígado suíno. O EPA possuía conteúdo fenólico total de 32,6 mg EAG/g pele seca, a capacidade de sequestrar radicais de 46,5 &micro;L (EC50) e capacidade redutora (reagente FRAP) de 26,5 &micro;mol de equivalente Trolox/g pele seca. As proantocianidinas são os principais compostos fenólicos presentes no EPA. A adição do EPA (70 mg EAG/kg) em hambúrguer de frango cozido reduziu a oxidação lipídica e inibiu a perda de cor vermelha durante 15 dias de estocagem a 1 °C, porém o produto se tornou mais escuro devido a adição do EPA. No hambúrguer de ovelha cru armazenado em atmosfera modificada (80% O2 e 20% CO2) durante 20 dias a 2 °C, o EPA (1000 ppm) preveniu a diminuição da intensidade da cor vermelha, a oxidação lipídica e de proteínas além de reduzir a percepção de off-odor. Porém o desenvolvimento de microrganismos viáveis totais (MVT), enterobactérias (Enterobacteriaceae), psedomonas (Pseudomonas spp.) e as bactérias ácido láticas, luminosidade, valor de pH e ácidos graxos livres (AGL) não foram afetados pela adição do EPA. O conteúdo total de compostos voláteis derivados da oxidação lipídica foi similar nos lotes controle e EPA. Além do EPA (2000 ppm), o extrato de folha de castanha (EFC, 2000 ppm), extrato de resíduo de cervejaria (ERC, 2000 ppm) e o antioxidante sintético hidroxitolueno butilado (BHT, 50 ppm) foram adicionados ao salchichón com óleo de peixe microencapsulado em matriz de konjac. Os antioxidantes naturais reduziram a formação de carbonilas e conteúdo total de compostos voláteis derivados da oxidação lipídica, porém aumentaram a quantidade de AGL. A oxidação lipídica e o valor de vermelho foram similares entre todos os tratamentos e particularmente para o lote EFC menor luminosidade e valor de pH foram observados. O patê de fígado suíno com mistura de óleos mais saudáveis (óleo peixe e de oliva) foi elaborado com os antioxidantes ERC, EFC e EPA (todos a 1000 ppm). Não foram observadas diferenças significativas marcantes devido a presença dos antioxidantes naturais no valor de pH, cor instrumental, oxidação lipídica, AGL e compostos voláteis derivados da oxidação lipídica do patê estocado a 4 °C por 160 dias. A composição centesimal de todos os produtos cárneos analisados não foi alterada em função do EPA. Desta forma, o EPA possui potencial para ser aplicado em hambúrguer cozido de frango e hambúrguer de carne de ovelha armazenado em atmosfera modificada. No caso do salchichón com óleo de peixe encasulado em matriz de konjac, os antioxidantes naturais testados podem proteger contra reações oxidativas, porém a adição destes extratos naturais não é recomendada para o patê de fígado suíno com óleos mais saudáveis. / This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant potential, phenolic profile characterization and antioxidant effect of peanut skin extract (PSE) in meat products: cooked chicken patties, raw sheep patties storage in modified atmosphere, Spanish salchichón elaborated with encapsulated n-3 long chain fatty acids in konjac glucomannan matrix and pig liver pâté manufactured with healthy oils. PSE presented total phenolic content of 32.6 mg GAE/g dry skin, radical scavenge potential of 46.5 &micro;L (EC50) and reducing power (FRAP reagent) of 26,5 &micro;mol Trolox equivalent/g dry skin. The major phenolic compounds were proanthocyanidins in PSA. The manufacture of cooked chicken patties with PSE (70 mg GAE/kg) reduced lipid oxidation and inhibited the loss of redness during 15 days at 1 °C, but reduced the luminosity of patties. In raw sheep patties storage in modified atmosphere (80% O2 e 20% CO2) during 20 days at 2 °C, PSE (1000 ppm) inhibited the loss of red color, lipid and protein oxidation and also reduced the perception of off-odor. However, PSE did not affect total viable counts, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas spp. and Lactic acid bacteria growth, luminosity, pH value and free fatty acids (FFA) content. The lipid derived volatile compounds of PSE batch were similar to control patties. In Spanish salchichón experiment other natural extracts were also evaluated: beer residue extract (BRE, 2000 ppm), chestnut leaf extract (CLE, 2000 ppm) besides PSE (2000 ppm) and butyl hydroxyltoluene (BHT, 50 ppm). In antioxidant batches, carbonyl formation and lipid derived volatile compounds were reduced, although a significant increase in FFA content was observed in these batches. Lipid oxidation and red color were similar among all batches and particularly for CLE batch the luminosity and pH values were lower than other batches. Differently, in pig liver pâté with healthier oil combination, BRE, CLE and PSE (all at 1000 ppm) did not display remarkable significant differences in pH value, instrumental color, lipid oxidation, FFA e lipid derived volatile compounds during 160 days of storage at 4 °C. The proximate composition of all manufactured meat products were not affected by PSE or natural/synthetic antioxidant. In this sense, PSE is suggested to be applied in chicken and raw sheep patties in modified atmosphere. Evaluated natural antioxidants are suggested to be used in Spanish salchichón to prevent oxidative damage, but none of them are recommended as antioxidant additive in pig liver pâté.

Extra lean (3.3% fat) and lean (20.0% fat) hamburgers in three pH groups (≤ 6.0; 6.01-6.49; 6.50-6.92) were evaluated for cooking-temperature profile, total process lethality, and physical properties after cooking to 71°C by double-side frying on an electric grill. Neither cooking-temperature profile nor cooking time was affected by hamburger fat content or pH. Double-side frying to 71.1°C internal temperature was adequate for more than 6-log destruction of viable E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella at the geometrical center of extra lean and lean hamburgers. The coldest spot was on the circumferential surface, as indicated by the presence of a red ring of undenatured myoglobin, and confirmed by the finite-element temperature distribution model. The effect of pH (5.80, 6.29, 6.73) on myoglobin denaturation in extra lean (3.3% fat) and lean (20.0% fat) hamburgers was studied. Compared to normal meat (pH= 5.8), raw extra lean ground beef of pH = 6.73 had significantly lower oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) value, lower concentration of metmyoglobin after 48 hr of refrigerated storage, and more distinct cherry-red color. Percent of myoglobin denaturation during cooking was affected mainly by pH and was not affected by total pigment or fat content of hamburgers. A pH ≥ 6.5 and ORP ≤ -200 mV were characteristic of dark-cutting beef In a third experiment, extra lean (3.5%) and lean (20.0%) beef patties were made from normal beef (pH= 5.70) and dark-cutting beef (pH = 6.60). Controls were made with no additives or with 1% salt and 10% added water. Various browning agents (1% glucose, 0.2% caramel colorant, 0.3% calcium peroxide, or 2.5% encapsulated lactic acid) were added with 10% water and 1% salt. Salt had a pronounced prooxidant effect on myoglobin. Distinctive absorption peaks at 541-548 nm and 577-582 nm indicated that the undenatured pigment in cooked patties was oxymyoglobin. Dark-cutting patties had more rubbery texture and slightly perceptible off-flavor. Patties with lactic acid were less juicy and had lower intensity of beef flavor than other patties, and moderate intensity of sour off-flavor. Addition of salt and encapsulated lactic acid to beef patty formulation could solve the problem of hard-to-cook patties.