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This study examines the evolutionary history of Pectis L., a neotropical genus of ~90 species of xeric-adapted, herbaceous, annuals and perennials. Pectis is rare among the Asteraceae, as it uses C₄ photosynthesis, a complex suite of traits that concentrates carbon around Rubisco. Plants with C₄ photosynthesis do well in environments of high light and high heat, and the C₄ syndrome is thought to have evolved as a response to such environments. Pectis is most diverse in Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, and South America, and its distribution mirrors the disjunctions of patches of desert, thornscrub, coastal plains, savanna, and openings in seasonally-dry tropical forests and oak-pine woodlands. Vicariance and long-distance dispersal theories can explain the patchy distribution of xeric-adapted plants, as well as the origin of Caribbean species. To answer evolutionary questions about a group, one must understand how its members are related. The most comprehensive taxonomic treatment of Pectis is over 100 years old, and includes only North American species. Recent revisions still leave half the species unassigned to section. Molecular studies have found Pectis sister to, or encompassing, the genus Porophyllum. To infer evolutionary relationships between and within Pectis and Porophyllum, DNA from the nuclear and chloroplast genomes of 78 Pectis and 22 Porophyllum species were sampled, sequenced, and analyzed. The molecular phylogeny was used to suggest updated sections based on monophyletic groups. To infer the photosynthetic pathway of Pectis and Porophyllum species, carbon isotope ratios were obtained from 62 Pectis and 18 Porophyllum species. The timing and location of the evolution of Pectis and Porophyllum has implications for the evolution of C₄ photosynthesis. The carbon isotope data were combined with the phylogeny to determine the extent and direction of the evolution of C₄ photosynthesis, and the timing of its evolution was inferred from a fossil-calibrated analysis using chloroplast data from species across the Asteraceae. Distribution data was combined with the Pectis phylogeny to answer questions regarding the biogeographical history of Pectis, including questions regarding its disjuncted distribution, the timing of the evolution of desert species, and the timing and pattern of dispersal to and from the Caribbean Islands. / text

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Este trabalho descreve a investigaÃÃo quÃmica de plantas da famÃlia Asteraceae nativas da flora cearense, pertencentes aos gÃneros Baccharis, Eupatorium, Pectis, Verbesina e Vernonia. Eupatorium ballotaefolium H.B.K. e E. betonicaeforme Baker foram selecionados para o estudo da composiÃÃo quÃmica volÃtil e nÃo-volÃtil, enquanto Baccharis trinervis (Lam.) Pers., E. pauciflorum Kunth, Pectis apodocephala Baker, P. oligocephala Baker, Verbesina diversifolia D.C., Vernonia chalybaea Mart. e V. scorpioides (Lam.) Pers, tiveram exclusivamente a composiÃÃo quÃmica dos Ãleos essenciais determinados. O potencial antimicrobiano, larvicida e nematicida de alguns Ãleos foi avaliado. O Ãleo essencial de B. trinervis apresentou moderada atividade antimicrobiana, enquanto os Ãleos essenciais de P. apodocephala, P. oligocephala e E. betonicaeforme, incluindo dois de seus principais constituintes, 2,2-dimetil-6-vinilcroman-4-ona e 2-senecioil-4-vinilfenol, apresentaram significativa atividade larvicida contra larvas do Aedes aegypti. Os Ãleos essenciais das Pectis acima mencionadas, tambÃm apresentaram propriedades nematicida contra o fito-nematÃide Meloidogyne incognita. Neste trabalho investigou-se ainda, a composiÃÃo dos Ãcidos graxos contidos nas fraÃÃes apolares dos extratos hexÃnicos da parte aÃrea de E. ballotaefolium e E. betonicaeforme. Foram identificados um total de 13 Ãcidos graxos, sendo o Ãcido hexadecanÃico (C16:0) o constituinte majoritÃrio para ambas as espÃcies. A prospecÃÃo quÃmica relativa Ãs duas espÃcies de Eupatorium resultou no isolamento e identificaÃÃo de 11 substÃncias para E. ballotaefolium e 17 substÃncias para E. betonicaeforme. Do extrato hexÃnico da parte aÃrea de E. ballotaefolium isolou-se, em mistura, os fitoesterÃides β- sitosterol e estigmasterol e os triterpenos acetato de taraxasterila e taraxasterol, enquanto do extrato etanÃlico, foram isolados e caracterizados os flavonÃides nepetina e quercetina na forma glicosilada e as formas glicosÃdicas do sitostetol e estigmasterol. Do extrato hexÃnico das raÃzes foram isolados os triterpenos epifriedelanol e dammara-20,24-dien-3β-ol e do extrato etanÃlico foi obtida a cumarina 11-hidroxi-11,12-di-hidroobliquina. Do extrato hexÃnico das flores de E. betonicaeforme foram isolados uma lactona sesquiterpÃnica, 8β- angeloiloxi-9β,10β-di-hidroxi-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olido, uma lactona de cadeia longa, 3β-hidroxieicosan-1,5β-olido, os diterpenos Ãcido grandiflÃrico e Ãcido 15α- decanoiloxi-caur-16-en-19-Ãico, o esterÃide espinasterol e o Ãcido hexacosanÃico, enquanto do extrato etanÃlico, foram isolados o triterpeno acetato de taraxasterila e os flavonÃides, nepetina, canferol e ramnocitrina. Do extrato hexÃnico das raÃzes, isolou-se em mistura, os xxiv esterÃides β-sitosterol e estigmasterol, enquanto do extrato etanÃlico isolou-se a cromona 6,6- acetil-2,2-dimetilcroman-4-ona e o flavonÃide nepetina. Do extrato hexÃnico da parte aÃrea isolou-se a mistura binÃria dos triterpenos α- e β-amirina, alÃm do acetato de taraxasterila. De acordo com o levantamento bibliogrÃfico, o diterpeno denominado Ãcido 15α-decanoiloxicaur- 16-en-19-Ãico, ainda nÃo havia sido registrado na literatura e os constituintes 8β- angeloiloxi-9β,10β-di-hidroxi-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olido, 3β- hidroxieicosan-1,5β-olido, 2,2-dimetil-6-vinil-croman-4-ona, 6-acetil -2,2-dimetil-croman-4- ona, 2-senecioil-4-vinilfenol e damara-20,24-dien-3β-ol, estÃo sendo registrados pela primeira vez no gÃnero. A lactona 8β-angeloiloxi-9β,10β-di-hidroxi-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien- 12,6α-olido e o flavonÃide nepetina apresentaram moderado potencial citotÃxico quando testados frente a um painel de cÃlulas tumorais, apresentando IC50 nas faixas de 1,27-7,16 e 5,48-15,12 μg/mL, respectivamente. A determinaÃÃo estrutural dos metabÃlitos secundÃrios isolados neste trabalho envolveu o uso de tÃcnicas espectromÃtricas como infravermelho (IV), espectrometria de massa (EM) e ressonÃncia magnÃtica nuclear de hidrogÃnio (RMN 1H) e carbono-13 (RMN 13C), incluindo tÃcnicas bidimensionais como COSY, HMQC, HMBC e NOESY, bem como comparaÃÃo com dados descritos na literatura. / This work describes the chemical investigation of native plants of the Asteraceae family from Cearà State flora, belonging to the genera Baccharis, Eupatorium, Pectis, Verbesina and Vernonia. Eupatorium ballotaefolium H.B.K. and E. betonicaeforme Baker were selected to study their volatile and non-volatile chemical composition, while for Baccharis trinervis (Lam.) Pers., E. pauciflorum Kunth, Pectis apodocephala Baker, P. oligocephala Baker, Verbesina diversifolia D.C., Vernonia chalybaea Mart. and V. scorpioides (Lam.) Pers only the chemical composition of the essential oils, was determined. The antimicrobial, larvicidal and nematicidal potential of some of the oils were evaluated. The essential oil of B. trinervis showed moderate antimicrobial activity, while the essential oils of P. apodocephala, P. oligocephala and E. betonicaeforme, including two of their major constituents, 2,2-dimethyl-6-vinylchroman-4-one and 2-senecioyl-4-vinylphenol, showed significant larvicidal activity against the Aedes aegypti larvae. The essential oils from the above mentioned Pectis species also showed nematicidal properties against the nematode Meloidogyne incognita. The fatty acid composition of the apolar fractions from the hexane extracts of the aerial parts of E. ballotaefolium and E. betonicaeforme was also examined. A total of 13 fatty acids were identified, being hexadecanoic acid (C16:0) the major compound for both species. The chemical analysis of both Eupatorium species resulted in the isolation and characterization of 11 substances for E. ballotaefolium and 17 substances for E. betonicaeforme. From the hexane extract of the aerial parts of E. ballotaefolium was isolated a mixture of β-sitosterol and stigmasterol, the triterpenes taraxasteryl acetate and taraxasterol, while the flavonoids nepetin and quercetin-3-O-glucoside and a binary misture of sitosterol and stigmasterol glucosilated, were isolated from the ethanol extract. From the hexane extract of the roots were isolated the tritepenes epifriedelanol and dammara-20,24-dien-3β-ol and from the ethanol extract was obtained the coumarin 11-hydroxy-11,12-di-hydroobliquine. From the hexane extract of E. betonicaeforme flowers a sesquiterpene lactone, 8β- angeloyloxy-9β,10β-dihydroxy-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olide, a long chain lactone 3β-hydroxiicosan-1,5β-olide, the diterpenes grandifloric and 15α-decanoyloxy-kaur- 16-en-19-oic acids, the steroid spinasterol and hexacosanoic acid were isolated. From the ethanol extract were isolated taraxasteril acetate, nepetin, kaempferol and ramnocitrin. From the hexane extract of the roots were isolated the mixture of β-sitosterol and stigmasterol, while from the ethanol extract were isolated 6,6-acetyl-2,2-dimethylcroman-4-one and nepetin. The hexane extract of the aerial parts were obtained the binary mixture of α- and β- amyrin, and taraxasteryl acetate. To the best of our knowledge the diterpene characterized as 15α-decanoyloxy-kaur-16-en-19-oic acid is a new substance while the compounds 8β- angeloyloxy-9β,10β-dihydroxy-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olide, 3β- hydroxyeicosan-1,5β-olide, 2,2-dimethyl-6-vinyl-chroman-4-one, 6-acetyl-2,2-dimethylchroman- 4-one, 2-senecioyl-4-vinylphenol and dammara-20,24-dien-3β-ol are being reported for the first time to the genus. The lactone 8β-angeloyloxy-9β,10β-dihydroxy-1-oxogermacra- 4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olide and the flavonoid nepetin showed moderated cytotoxic activity against a panel of five cell lines with IC50 in the range of 1,27-7,16 e 5,48-15,12 μg/mL, respectively. The structures of all secondary metabolites were established using spectrometric data such as IR, MS, 1H and 13C NMR, including bidimensional techniques (COSY, HMQC, HMBC and NOESY), and comparison with from the literature data.

ALBUQUERQUE, M. R. J. R.; PESSOA, O. D. L. Estudo químico de asteráceas do Ceará: Baccharis trinervis, Eupatorium ballotaefolium, Eupatorium betonicaeforme, Eupatorium pauciflorum, Pectis apodocephala, Pectis oligocephala, Verbesina diversifolia, Vernonia chalybaea e Vernonia scorpioides, 2006. 436 f. Tese (Doutorado em Química Orgânica) - Centro de Ciências, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, 2006. / Submitted by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2014-10-10T20:02:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_tese_mrjralbuquerque.pdf: 8995931 bytes, checksum: 69c7e8b9ff64d113f97db77209bc46b0 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa(jairo@ufc.br) on 2015-10-22T23:05:38Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_tese_mrjralbuquerque.pdf: 8995931 bytes, checksum: 69c7e8b9ff64d113f97db77209bc46b0 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-10-22T23:05:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_tese_mrjralbuquerque.pdf: 8995931 bytes, checksum: 69c7e8b9ff64d113f97db77209bc46b0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / This work describes the chemical investigation of native plants of the Asteraceae family from Ceará State flora, belonging to the genera Baccharis, Eupatorium, Pectis, Verbesina and Vernonia. Eupatorium ballotaefolium H.B.K. and E. betonicaeforme Baker were selected to study their volatile and non-volatile chemical composition, while for Baccharis trinervis (Lam.) Pers., E. pauciflorum Kunth, Pectis apodocephala Baker, P. oligocephala Baker, Verbesina diversifolia D.C., Vernonia chalybaea Mart. and V. scorpioides (Lam.) Pers only the chemical composition of the essential oils, was determined. The antimicrobial, larvicidal and nematicidal potential of some of the oils were evaluated. The essential oil of B. trinervis showed moderate antimicrobial activity, while the essential oils of P. apodocephala, P. oligocephala and E. betonicaeforme, including two of their major constituents, 2,2-dimethyl-6-vinylchroman-4-one and 2-senecioyl-4-vinylphenol, showed significant larvicidal activity against the Aedes aegypti larvae. The essential oils from the above mentioned Pectis species also showed nematicidal properties against the nematode Meloidogyne incognita. The fatty acid composition of the apolar fractions from the hexane extracts of the aerial parts of E. ballotaefolium and E. betonicaeforme was also examined. A total of 13 fatty acids were identified, being hexadecanoic acid (C16:0) the major compound for both species. The chemical analysis of both Eupatorium species resulted in the isolation and characterization of 11 substances for E. ballotaefolium and 17 substances for E. betonicaeforme. From the hexane extract of the aerial parts of E. ballotaefolium was isolated a mixture of β-sitosterol and stigmasterol, the triterpenes taraxasteryl acetate and taraxasterol, while the flavonoids nepetin and quercetin-3-O-glucoside and a binary misture of sitosterol and stigmasterol glucosilated, were isolated from the ethanol extract. From the hexane extract of the roots were isolated the tritepenes epifriedelanol and dammara-20,24-dien-3β-ol and from the ethanol extract was obtained the coumarin 11-hydroxy-11,12-di-hydroobliquine. From the hexane extract of E. betonicaeforme flowers a sesquiterpene lactone, 8β- angeloyloxy-9β,10β-dihydroxy-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olide, a long chain lactone 3β-hydroxiicosan-1,5β-olide, the diterpenes grandifloric and 15α-decanoyloxy-kaur- 16-en-19-oic acids, the steroid spinasterol and hexacosanoic acid were isolated. From the ethanol extract were isolated taraxasteril acetate, nepetin, kaempferol and ramnocitrin. From the hexane extract of the roots were isolated the mixture of β-sitosterol and stigmasterol, while from the ethanol extract were isolated 6,6-acetyl-2,2-dimethylcroman-4-one and nepetin. The hexane extract of the aerial parts were obtained the binary mixture of α- and β- amyrin, and taraxasteryl acetate. To the best of our knowledge the diterpene characterized as 15α-decanoyloxy-kaur-16-en-19-oic acid is a new substance while the compounds 8β- angeloyloxy-9β,10β-dihydroxy-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olide, 3β- hydroxyeicosan-1,5β-olide, 2,2-dimethyl-6-vinyl-chroman-4-one, 6-acetyl-2,2-dimethylchroman- 4-one, 2-senecioyl-4-vinylphenol and dammara-20,24-dien-3β-ol are being reported for the first time to the genus. The lactone 8β-angeloyloxy-9β,10β-dihydroxy-1-oxogermacra- 4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olide and the flavonoid nepetin showed moderated cytotoxic activity against a panel of five cell lines with IC50 in the range of 1,27-7,16 e 5,48-15,12 μg/mL, respectively. The structures of all secondary metabolites were established using spectrometric data such as IR, MS, 1H and 13C NMR, including bidimensional techniques (COSY, HMQC, HMBC and NOESY), and comparison with from the literature data. / Este trabalho descreve a investigação química de plantas da família Asteraceae nativas da flora cearense, pertencentes aos gêneros Baccharis, Eupatorium, Pectis, Verbesina e Vernonia. Eupatorium ballotaefolium H.B.K. e E. betonicaeforme Baker foram selecionados para o estudo da composição química volátil e não-volátil, enquanto Baccharis trinervis (Lam.) Pers., E. pauciflorum Kunth, Pectis apodocephala Baker, P. oligocephala Baker, Verbesina diversifolia D.C., Vernonia chalybaea Mart. e V. scorpioides (Lam.) Pers, tiveram exclusivamente a composição química dos óleos essenciais determinados. O potencial antimicrobiano, larvicida e nematicida de alguns óleos foi avaliado. O óleo essencial de B. trinervis apresentou moderada atividade antimicrobiana, enquanto os óleos essenciais de P. apodocephala, P. oligocephala e E. betonicaeforme, incluindo dois de seus principais constituintes, 2,2-dimetil-6-vinilcroman-4-ona e 2-senecioil-4-vinilfenol, apresentaram significativa atividade larvicida contra larvas do Aedes aegypti. Os óleos essenciais das Pectis acima mencionadas, também apresentaram propriedades nematicida contra o fito-nematóide Meloidogyne incognita. Neste trabalho investigou-se ainda, a composição dos ácidos graxos contidos nas frações apolares dos extratos hexânicos da parte aérea de E. ballotaefolium e E. betonicaeforme. Foram identificados um total de 13 ácidos graxos, sendo o ácido hexadecanóico (C16:0) o constituinte majoritário para ambas as espécies. A prospecção química relativa às duas espécies de Eupatorium resultou no isolamento e identificação de 11 substâncias para E. ballotaefolium e 17 substâncias para E. betonicaeforme. Do extrato hexânico da parte aérea de E. ballotaefolium isolou-se, em mistura, os fitoesteróides β- sitosterol e estigmasterol e os triterpenos acetato de taraxasterila e taraxasterol, enquanto do extrato etanólico, foram isolados e caracterizados os flavonóides nepetina e quercetina na forma glicosilada e as formas glicosídicas do sitostetol e estigmasterol. Do extrato hexânico das raízes foram isolados os triterpenos epifriedelanol e dammara-20,24-dien-3β-ol e do extrato etanólico foi obtida a cumarina 11-hidroxi-11,12-di-hidroobliquina. Do extrato hexânico das flores de E. betonicaeforme foram isolados uma lactona sesquiterpênica, 8β- angeloiloxi-9β,10β-di-hidroxi-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olido, uma lactona de cadeia longa, 3β-hidroxieicosan-1,5β-olido, os diterpenos ácido grandiflórico e ácido 15α- decanoiloxi-caur-16-en-19-óico, o esteróide espinasterol e o ácido hexacosanóico, enquanto do extrato etanólico, foram isolados o triterpeno acetato de taraxasterila e os flavonóides, nepetina, canferol e ramnocitrina. Do extrato hexânico das raízes, isolou-se em mistura, os xxiv esteróides β-sitosterol e estigmasterol, enquanto do extrato etanólico isolou-se a cromona 6,6- acetil-2,2-dimetilcroman-4-ona e o flavonóide nepetina. Do extrato hexânico da parte aérea isolou-se a mistura binária dos triterpenos α- e β-amirina, além do acetato de taraxasterila. De acordo com o levantamento bibliográfico, o diterpeno denominado ácido 15α-decanoiloxicaur- 16-en-19-óico, ainda não havia sido registrado na literatura e os constituintes 8β- angeloiloxi-9β,10β-di-hidroxi-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien-12,6α-olido, 3β- hidroxieicosan-1,5β-olido, 2,2-dimetil-6-vinil-croman-4-ona, 6-acetil -2,2-dimetil-croman-4- ona, 2-senecioil-4-vinilfenol e damara-20,24-dien-3β-ol, estão sendo registrados pela primeira vez no gênero. A lactona 8β-angeloiloxi-9β,10β-di-hidroxi-1-oxo-germacra-4E,11(13)dien- 12,6α-olido e o flavonóide nepetina apresentaram moderado potencial citotóxico quando testados frente a um painel de células tumorais, apresentando IC50 nas faixas de 1,27-7,16 e 5,48-15,12 μg/mL, respectivamente. A determinação estrutural dos metabólitos secundários isolados neste trabalho envolveu o uso de técnicas espectrométricas como infravermelho (IV), espectrometria de massa (EM) e ressonância magnética nuclear de hidrogênio (RMN 1H) e carbono-13 (RMN 13C), incluindo técnicas bidimensionais como COSY, HMQC, HMBC e NOESY, bem como comparação com dados descritos na literatura.