A Thesis submitted to The University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine. / Background: Great strides have been made in childhood cancer treatment efficacy over the past two decades leading to improved survival rates, and now attention is being directed toward identifying and understanding complications that affect many of these patients as they reach adulthood. Obesity is a well‐recognized late effect that has many potential long‐term consequences some of which include cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia and even death. Materials/Methods: We conducted a retrospective chart review to determine the prevalence of obesity among survivors of pediatric brain tumors 5 years after the completion of therapy and compare this to the general pediatric population of the same age. We also sought to identify potential risk factors for the development of obesity among survivors of childhood brain tumors. Obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) greater than the 95th percentile for age and gender as defined by the most recent Center for Disease Control growth curves. Results: We identified 96 patients who met our inclusion criteria, however only 43 had follow‐up data at 5 years after the completion of therapy to be included in final analysis. Of 43 patients, 5 (11.63%) were obese 5 years after completion of therapy. The CDC sites general population obesity rates in three age groups: 2‐5 years (8.4% obesity rate), 6‐ 11 years (18% obesity rate), 12‐19 years (21% obesity rate). Using CDC guidelines, we found no significant difference between the obesity rate among the brain tumor survivor population for each age group and the general population, p‐values of 0.865, 0.865, and 0.249 respectively. Conclusion: Our small sample size was likely not adequate to find a significant difference between the two groups or identify risk factors associated with the development of obesity. Larger studies are needed to further examine the risk of obesity among pediatric brain tumor survivors and to identify risk factors associated with this late effect.

Introduction: The increased survival rates of children with brain tumors is the result of decades of advancement in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches, but brought the adverse long-term effects of the treatments and tumors on these children into focus. Survivors of childhood brain tumors (SCBT) are at an increased risk of cardiometabolic disorders and premature mortality. Obesity and excess adiposity are well-established risk factor for cardiometabolic risk in the general population, but its contribution to these outcomes in survivors is unknown. More recently, adiposity has emerged as a more robust predictor of cardiometabolic risk than body mass index, the most clinically used measure of obesity. The current thesis pursued four objectives: 1) to determine the prevalence of obesity and excess adiposity in SCBT 2) to explore adiposity and its determinants in SCBT 3) to investigate the determinants of obesity in SCBT and 4) to identify potentially effective interventions to manage obesity in SCBT. Methods: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were used to evaluate the prevalence and interventions for overweight and obesity in SCBT while the determinants of adiposity and obesity were explored using primary data and regression analyses. General health information and brain tumors information were collected with standardized questionnaires and review of medical records. The overweight or obesity status of subjects was determined by body mass index (BMI), and adiposity profile was evaluated using percent body fat (%FM), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR). Results: The results show no difference between the overweight and obesity rates in SCBT and non-cancer controls. However, SCBT have higher total and central adiposity. Birth weight is found to be a predictor of future BMI in SCBT, while a higher total adiposity in SCBT is predicted by having supratentorial tumors and receiving radiotherapy. Lastly, not enough evidence is available to conclude the effectiveness of lifestyle interventions, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric surgery on managing obesity in SCBT. Conclusions: Obesity, determined by BMI, is not enough to determine cardiometabolic risks in SCBT. Total and central adiposity should be measured as well to identify high-risk group. Special attention should be paid to SCBT with high birth weight, supratentorial tumors, and having received radiotherapy. Lastly, more randomized controlled trials are needed to provide high-quality evidence to determine the effectiveness of interventions to manage obesity and improve outcomes in SCBT. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Brain tumors are the most common solid tumors in children. The survival rates among children with brain tumors have increased significantly over the past four decades due to advances in early detection and treatment. However, these children are at increased risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes, and early death. Evidence has suggested obesity and excess body fat as main reasons for cardiometabolic disorders in the general population, but it is not known if obesity and excess body fat contribute to diabetes and heart disease in survivors. Therefore, the current thesis aims to explore obesity and adiposity, their predictors and any existing treatments available to survivors of childhood brain tumors (SCBT) to see if outcomes can be improved. The results show that while survivors of childhood brain tumors have similar overweight and obesity rates to the general population when measured by the most common clinical measure, called body mass index (BMI), they in fact have higher fat mass. Furthermore, we identified birth weight as a predictor of obesity while the location of the tumors and receiving radiation therapy as predictors of the fat mass in SCBT. The results also show the lack of current effective interventions to manage obesity in SCBT. This data is critical to consider in the design and implementation of strategies to reduce heat disease and diabetes in survivors to improve their quality of life and lifespan.

Verbal memory (VM) has been shown to be impacted in brain tumor (BT) survivors, but the nature of VM problems and underlying neuropathology are poorly understood and a long-term outlook is lacking. Our study examined hippocampus volume (HV) and VM in adult survivors of pediatric BT (n=32) and controls (n=48). Results indicate that disruption to a maturing brain in childhood is detectable 17 years (mean) after diagnosis, as HV is significantly lower in survivors compared to controls. Analysis of the VM scores shows that survivors have significantly lower overall immediate recall compared to controls, but learning slope, retention, and recognition are not different across the groups. Survivors’ memory profile indicates that auditory attention and retrieval difficulties could be contributing to their lower immediate recall. For survivors, HV is significantly correlated with delayed free recall but not with other VM indices. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Meduloblastoma (MB) e Tumor Teratóide Rabdóide Atipico (TTRA) são tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que ocorrem na infância. Embora tenha havido um aumento na sobrevida, recorrência e metástases são frequentes e as opções terapêuticas poucas e tóxicas para crianças. Uma alternativa à terapia tradicional é a imunoterapia, que pode contornar os efeitos tóxicos associados à radioterapia e quimioterapia. De uma forma geral a imunoterapia depende da presença de antígenos associados a tumor (TAA) e/ou processamento de antígenos expressos pelo HLA classe I. No entanto, TAA para MB ou ATRT não estão bem definidos e tecidos neuronais tem a expressão de HLA classe I muito baixa. As células Natural Killer (NK) não dependem de TAA para citólise e são particularmente ativas na ausência de moléculas do HLA classe I tendo, portanto, potencial para o tratamento dessas doenças. Atualmente as barreiras para a aplicação clínica de células NK são quantitativas e qualitativas. Com o intuito de quebrar a barreira quantitativa foi criada uma plataforma tecnológica para a expansão das NK ex vivo. Essa plataforma consiste no co-cultivo de células mononucleares de sangue periférico com células apresentadoras de antígeno artificiais (aAPC), que expressam Interleucina 21 ligada à membrana. Com essa tecnologia foi possível expandir células NK na ordem de 40.000 vezes. Também foi demonstrada a persistência das células NK expandidas in vitro por 3 semanas após infusão em cérebro murino e que essas células expressam altos níveis de citocinas antitumorais e estimulantes do sistema imune: Interferon gama e Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa. Finalmente, foi demonstrada a atividade citolítica das células NK tanto in vitro, contra um painel de células de MB e ATRT, quanto in vivo em um modelo murino de MB. Os resultados obtidos fornecem a primeira evidência pré-clínica que provê suporte ao uso de células NK expandidas usando essa plataforma tecnológica no combate a cânceres de cérebro pediátricos. Com base nesses dados, nosso grupo no MD Anderson Cancer Center iniciou um ensaio clínico fase I para testar a segurança e eficácia de administração locorregional de células NK expandidas usando aAPC para o tratamento de tumores pediátricos da fossa posterior do cérebro. / Medulloblastoma (MBs) and Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) are malignant pediatric brain tumors. Although survival has improved, recurrence and metastasis are frequent with few therapeutic options for these children. Immunotherapy is an alternative to traditional therapies that may circumvent the potential toxicities associated with traditional chemotherapy and radiation approaches. Many immune based therapies rely on the presence of tumor associated antigens (TAAs) and/or antigen processing and class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA I) expression. However, TAAs for MB are not well defined and neuronal tissues have very low HLA I expression. Natural killer (NK) cells do not rely on TAA for cytolysis and therefore have potential for the treatment of these diseases. The current barriers to clinical application of NK therapy are quantitative and qualitative. To overcome quantitative barriers, we have worked with a platform technology for the ex vivo expansion of NK cells through co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with artificial antigen presenting cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 (mbIL21) to promote a 40,000-fold expansion of NK cells. We also demonstrate prolonged life-span of ex vivo expanded NK cells and persistence for up to 3 weeks post-infusion in the murine brain. These cells express high levels of immune stimulatory and anti-tumor cytokines - interferon gamma and TNF-alpha following activation. Finally we demonstrate NK cytolytic activity in vitro against a panel of primary and established ATRT and MB cells and in vivo following locoregional delivery in a mouse orthotopic model of MB. Our data provide the first pre-clinical evidence supporting the use of mbIL21 expanded NK cells against pediatric brain tumors. Based on this data we have initiated a novel Phase I clinical trial at MD Anderson Cancer Center to assess the safety and efficacy of locoregional delivery of mbIL21 expanded NK cells for the treatment of posterior fossa pediatric brain tumors.

Meduloblastoma (MB) e Tumor Teratóide Rabdóide Atipico (TTRA) são tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que ocorrem na infância. Embora tenha havido um aumento na sobrevida, recorrência e metástases são frequentes e as opções terapêuticas poucas e tóxicas para crianças. Uma alternativa à terapia tradicional é a imunoterapia, que pode contornar os efeitos tóxicos associados à radioterapia e quimioterapia. De uma forma geral a imunoterapia depende da presença de antígenos associados a tumor (TAA) e/ou processamento de antígenos expressos pelo HLA classe I. No entanto, TAA para MB ou ATRT não estão bem definidos e tecidos neuronais tem a expressão de HLA classe I muito baixa. As células Natural Killer (NK) não dependem de TAA para citólise e são particularmente ativas na ausência de moléculas do HLA classe I tendo, portanto, potencial para o tratamento dessas doenças. Atualmente as barreiras para a aplicação clínica de células NK são quantitativas e qualitativas. Com o intuito de quebrar a barreira quantitativa foi criada uma plataforma tecnológica para a expansão das NK ex vivo. Essa plataforma consiste no co-cultivo de células mononucleares de sangue periférico com células apresentadoras de antígeno artificiais (aAPC), que expressam Interleucina 21 ligada à membrana. Com essa tecnologia foi possível expandir células NK na ordem de 40.000 vezes. Também foi demonstrada a persistência das células NK expandidas in vitro por 3 semanas após infusão em cérebro murino e que essas células expressam altos níveis de citocinas antitumorais e estimulantes do sistema imune: Interferon gama e Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa. Finalmente, foi demonstrada a atividade citolítica das células NK tanto in vitro, contra um painel de células de MB e ATRT, quanto in vivo em um modelo murino de MB. Os resultados obtidos fornecem a primeira evidência pré-clínica que provê suporte ao uso de células NK expandidas usando essa plataforma tecnológica no combate a cânceres de cérebro pediátricos. Com base nesses dados, nosso grupo no MD Anderson Cancer Center iniciou um ensaio clínico fase I para testar a segurança e eficácia de administração locorregional de células NK expandidas usando aAPC para o tratamento de tumores pediátricos da fossa posterior do cérebro. / Medulloblastoma (MBs) and Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) are malignant pediatric brain tumors. Although survival has improved, recurrence and metastasis are frequent with few therapeutic options for these children. Immunotherapy is an alternative to traditional therapies that may circumvent the potential toxicities associated with traditional chemotherapy and radiation approaches. Many immune based therapies rely on the presence of tumor associated antigens (TAAs) and/or antigen processing and class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA I) expression. However, TAAs for MB are not well defined and neuronal tissues have very low HLA I expression. Natural killer (NK) cells do not rely on TAA for cytolysis and therefore have potential for the treatment of these diseases. The current barriers to clinical application of NK therapy are quantitative and qualitative. To overcome quantitative barriers, we have worked with a platform technology for the ex vivo expansion of NK cells through co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with artificial antigen presenting cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 (mbIL21) to promote a 40,000-fold expansion of NK cells. We also demonstrate prolonged life-span of ex vivo expanded NK cells and persistence for up to 3 weeks post-infusion in the murine brain. These cells express high levels of immune stimulatory and anti-tumor cytokines - interferon gamma and TNF-alpha following activation. Finally we demonstrate NK cytolytic activity in vitro against a panel of primary and established ATRT and MB cells and in vivo following locoregional delivery in a mouse orthotopic model of MB. Our data provide the first pre-clinical evidence supporting the use of mbIL21 expanded NK cells against pediatric brain tumors. Based on this data we have initiated a novel Phase I clinical trial at MD Anderson Cancer Center to assess the safety and efficacy of locoregional delivery of mbIL21 expanded NK cells for the treatment of posterior fossa pediatric brain tumors.

Meduloblastoma (MB) e Tumor Teratóide Rabdóide Atipico (TTRA) são tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que ocorrem na infância. Embora tenha havido um aumento na sobrevida, recorrência e metástases são frequentes e as opções terapêuticas poucas e tóxicas para crianças. Uma alternativa à terapia tradicional é a imunoterapia, que pode contornar os efeitos tóxicos associados à radioterapia e quimioterapia. De uma forma geral a imunoterapia depende da presença de antígenos associados a tumor (TAA) e/ou processamento de antígenos expressos pelo HLA classe I. No entanto, TAA para MB ou ATRT não estão bem definidos e tecidos neuronais tem a expressão de HLA classe I muito baixa. As células Natural Killer (NK) não dependem de TAA para citólise e são particularmente ativas na ausência de moléculas do HLA classe I tendo, portanto, potencial para o tratamento dessas doenças. Atualmente as barreiras para a aplicação clínica de células NK são quantitativas e qualitativas. Com o intuito de quebrar a barreira quantitativa foi criada uma plataforma tecnológica para a expansão das NK ex vivo. Essa plataforma consiste no co-cultivo de células mononucleares de sangue periférico com células apresentadoras de antígeno artificiais (aAPC), que expressam Interleucina 21 ligada à membrana. Com essa tecnologia foi possível expandir células NK na ordem de 40.000 vezes. Também foi demonstrada a persistência das células NK expandidas in vitro por 3 semanas após infusão em cérebro murino e que essas células expressam altos níveis de citocinas antitumorais e estimulantes do sistema imune: Interferon gama e Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa. Finalmente, foi demonstrada a atividade citolítica das células NK tanto in vitro, contra um painel de células de MB e ATRT, quanto in vivo em um modelo murino de MB. Os resultados obtidos fornecem a primeira evidência pré-clínica que provê suporte ao uso de células NK expandidas usando essa plataforma tecnológica no combate a cânceres de cérebro pediátricos. Com base nesses dados, nosso grupo no MD Anderson Cancer Center iniciou um ensaio clínico fase I para testar a segurança e eficácia de administração locorregional de células NK expandidas usando aAPC para o tratamento de tumores pediátricos da fossa posterior do cérebro. / Medulloblastoma (MBs) and Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) are malignant pediatric brain tumors. Although survival has improved, recurrence and metastasis are frequent with few therapeutic options for these children. Immunotherapy is an alternative to traditional therapies that may circumvent the potential toxicities associated with traditional chemotherapy and radiation approaches. Many immune based therapies rely on the presence of tumor associated antigens (TAAs) and/or antigen processing and class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA I) expression. However, TAAs for MB are not well defined and neuronal tissues have very low HLA I expression. Natural killer (NK) cells do not rely on TAA for cytolysis and therefore have potential for the treatment of these diseases. The current barriers to clinical application of NK therapy are quantitative and qualitative. To overcome quantitative barriers, we have worked with a platform technology for the ex vivo expansion of NK cells through co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with artificial antigen presenting cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 (mbIL21) to promote a 40,000-fold expansion of NK cells. We also demonstrate prolonged life-span of ex vivo expanded NK cells and persistence for up to 3 weeks post-infusion in the murine brain. These cells express high levels of immune stimulatory and anti-tumor cytokines - interferon gamma and TNF-alpha following activation. Finally we demonstrate NK cytolytic activity in vitro against a panel of primary and established ATRT and MB cells and in vivo following locoregional delivery in a mouse orthotopic model of MB. Our data provide the first pre-clinical evidence supporting the use of mbIL21 expanded NK cells against pediatric brain tumors. Based on this data we have initiated a novel Phase I clinical trial at MD Anderson Cancer Center to assess the safety and efficacy of locoregional delivery of mbIL21 expanded NK cells for the treatment of posterior fossa pediatric brain tumors.

Children who have survived a brain tumor often experience late consequences as a result of the tumor itself, and/or treatment. The child’s ability to engage in daily activities may be restricted by these late consequences. Examples of these late consequences are challenges with their activity levels and engagement in daily activities. Therefore, it is important to study these children’s late consequences over time. The aim of the thesis is to use data from medical and school records linked to ICF, to investigate how the participation problems/ restrictions of children that completed cancer directed treatment for a brain tumor tend to occur simultaneously with codes from other ICF components, over time. For the present research the inclusion criteria were children that were followed by the habilitation service, school and health care for at least 4 years after completing their brain tumor treatment. Seven children were included in the study. For each child, records were obtained from habilitation, school and health care and a complete retrospective screening was conducted between February 2022 and April 2022. Problems in relation to everyday life were identified and linked to ICF codes and domains. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data, in order to see the re-occurrences of the ICF domains during the time and observe the trajectory and intensity of the problems. The results revealed that the problems linked to body functions were the most frequently mentioned ICF domain by all three services as well as over time. Problems over time related to activity and participation were less focused and little emphasis were focused on problems related to the environment. The pattern over time was very individual. In order to more prominent focus on the child’s everyday functioning, follow-up guidelines should also include the child's functioning in everyday life, and not only areas related to body function. To conclude, when caring for these children, it is important to also focus on the child’s function in everyday life and to individualize the care since the pattern of problems over time seems to be very individual. / <p></p><p></p> / Using ICF to Describe Problems With Functioning in Everyday Life for Children Who Completed Treatment for Brain Tumor: An Analysis Based on Professionals' Documentation

Les séquelles neuropsychologiques associées aux tumeurs cérébrales pédiatriques représentent un enjeu de santé publique. Les troubles des fonctions exécutives sont désormais avérés chez ces enfants mais la nature des processus perturbés, les modalités d'évaluation à préconiser et l'impact des variables démographiques/médicales liées à la maladie restent méconnus. L'objectif de cette thèse était de mieux comprendre le profil de perturbation des différents processus exécutifs dans ce contexte clinique, en confrontant des mesures basées sur la performance et des indicateurs de vie quotidienne (dans le contexte familial et scolaire). Dans cette perspective, nous avons 1) analysé le profil exécutif de 171 enfants d’âge scolaire atteints d'une tumeur cérébrale à la BRIEF (Inventaire d'évaluation comportementale des fonctions exécutives) et 2) étudié la convergence de ces indicateurs avec des mesures basées sur la performance adaptées en français auprès de 27 patients appariés à des enfants sains. L’influence des variables cliniques sur les profils exécutifs a été examinée. Des difficultés exécutives étendues mais variables ont été identifiées dans le quotidien des patients (tous types histologiques et localisations) au domicile et à l’école, avec par ailleurs des difficultés accrues rapportées par les parents en cas d’irradiation à un âge précoce. Des perturbations du contrôle exécutifs ont confirmées dans les mesures directes, dont la convergence avec les questionnaires apparait cependant limitée. Sur la base de ces résultats, sont discutés les apports respectifs de ces deux types d’outils pour appréhender la problématique exécutive dans le cadre des tumeurs pédiatriques. / Neuropsychological sequelae associated with pediatric brain tumors represent a major public health issue.Disorders of executive functions have been identified among these children, but the nature of the impaired processes, recommended evaluation modalities and the impact of demographic and medical variables related to the disease remain unclear. The aim of this thesis was to get a broader understanding of the disturbance profile of the different executive processes in this disease context, comparing performance-based measures and daily life indicators (in both the school and home environment). From this perspective, we have 1) analyzed the executive profile of 171 school age children with a brain tumor in the BRIEF (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function) and 2) examined the association of these indicators with performance-based measures adapted in French in 27 patients matched to healthy children. The influence of clinical variables on the executive profiles was discussed. Broad and variable executive difficulties have been identified in patients’ everyday life (all tumor types and locations) at home as well as school, with also increased difficulties reported by parents in the case of radiation therapy at an early age. Disturbances of executive control are confirmed in direct measures, whose convergence with the questionnaires appears however limited. Based on these results, respective contributions of these two types of tools are discussed in order to understand the executive issue in pediatric brain tumor survivors.

Le médulloblastome (MB) représente la tumeur maligne la plus fréquente du système nerveux chez l'enfant. Dans le laboratoire nous nous intéressons au sous-groupe avec une activation de la voie Sonic Hedgehog (SHH). Dans ce sous-groupe, l’induction de la dégradation du facteur de transcription Atoh1 par le protéasome empêche la prolifération des cellules de médulloblastome in vivo, ce qui fait d’Atoh1 une cible thérapeutique potentielle dans le cadre du MB SHH. Dans ce contexte, en utilisant une approche de purification d’Atoh1 suivie d’analyse des complexes protéiques par MudPit (Multidimensional Protein identification technology), nous avons découvert un nouveau partenaire d’Atoh1, une enzyme faisant partie du système ubiquitine-protéasome (UPS). Il s’agit d’une déubiquitinylase capable de cliver les chaines d’ubiquitine attachées sur ses substrats et ainsi d’inhiber la dégradation induite via le protéasome. Au cours de ma thèse j’ai tout d’abord confirmé l’interaction physique et fonctionnelle entre Atoh1 et l’enzyme identifié par MudPit. De plus, dans le but d’approfondir le rôle de cet enzyme dans la maintenance tumorale, nous avons validé que son inactivation in vivo permet (i) d’induire la dégradation d’Atoh1 et (ii) de bloquer la croissance des tumeurs. Parallèlement, nos résultats montrent que son inhibition pharmacologique déclenche la dégradation d’Atoh1, suivie d’un arrêt de la prolifération des cellules cancéreuses in vitro, et la regression tumorale in vivo.En conclusion, l’ensemble de ce travail a permis d’identifier un nouveau mécanisme moléculaire qui pourrait permettre de manipuler l’expression d’Atoh1 dans un but thérapeutique dans le cadre du MB SHH. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant tumor of the nervous system in children. Among the four molecular subgroups of MB, we focus on the one characterized by the activation of the Sonic Hedgehog pathway (SHH). In this subgroup, the degradation of the transcription factor Atoh1 through the proteasome prevents proliferation of medulloblastoma cells in vivo, which makes Atoh1 a potential therapeutic target in the SHH MB subgroup. In this context, using an Atoh1 purification approach followed by Mudpit (Multidimensional Protein Identification Technology) analysis, we discovered a new Atoh1 partner belonging to the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). This protein is a deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB) that cleaves the polyubiquitin chains from its substrates and thus inhibits their degradation via the proteasome.During my PhD, I first confirmed the physical and functional interaction between Atoh1 and the DUB enzyme. In addition, in order to investigate its role in SHH MB, we validated that its knockdown induces Atoh1 degradation and tumor growth arrest in vivo. In parallel, our results show that its pharmacological inhibition triggers Atoh1 degradation in vitro, followed by an inhibition of MB proliferation, and regulates negatively tumor progression in vivo.Altogether, this present work allowed the identification of a new molecular mechanism that defines the transcription factor Atoh1 as new therapeutic strategy to treat SHH MB patients.

[ES] Los tumores malignos del cerebro y del sistema nervioso central representan el 21% de los tumores en niños y son la segunda causa principal de muerte por cáncer pediátrico después de la leucemia. Los gliomas de alto grado siguen siendo incurables y poseen altas tasas de mortalidad: una supervivencia a cinco años del 4,7 % para pacientes con glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) y menos de un año en pacientes con glioma pontino intrínseco difuso (DIPG). Los bajos niveles de penetración del fármaco a través de la barrera hematoencefálica y la baja tasa de supervivencia asociada resaltan en la necesidad de nuevas propuestas de tratamiento para esta necesidad clínica no cubierta. La administración intranasal ofrece un enfoque no invasivo prometedor que elude el metabolismo hepato-gastrointestinal y la barrera hematoencefálica, constituyendo una ruta directa de la nariz al cerebro. Los poliglutamatos (PGA) representan excelentes candidatos para la administración de agentes terapéuticos en el cerebro debido a su biodegradabilidad y multivalencia, lo que permite la unión covalente de fármacos y grupos directores que puedan contribuir a cruzar las diferentes barreras biológicas existentes desde la nariz hasta el cerebro. La conjugación covalente del agente terapéutico a la cadena polimérica ofrece una estabilidad prolongada en la circulación sanguínea y un mayor control sobre la liberación del fármaco en el microambiente tumoral. Esta tesis se centra en el diseño racional y desarrollo de nuevos conjugados PGA-fármaco y una plataforma intranasal segura y eficiente para la administración dirigida y la liberación del fármaco en el cerebro como tratamiento del glioma pediátrico. Se desarrolló una familia de conjugados de poliglutamatos que incorporan palbociclib, un inhibidor de CDK, utilizando diferentes espaciadores sensibles a estímulos, así como diferente carga de fármacos. Estudiamos el efecto de la carga y conjugación de un fármaco sobre la conformación en solución de PGAs lineales y en forma de estrella. Con dispersión de rayos X de ángulo pequeño y dicroísmo circular, demostramos la evolución del conjugado polipeptídico al aumentar la carga de fármaco. Además, establecimos el vínculo entre la conformación de los conjugados y su actividad biológica en células GBM y DIPG derivadas de pacientes. Nuestros hallazgos ilustran la necesidad de una comprensión profunda de las propiedades fisicoquímicas de los nanosistemas estudiados que pueden ayudar a predecir su resultado biológico. Para el cribado rápido y la validación de la formulación intranasal, establecimos con éxito una plataforma de detección ex vivo basada en células de difusión verticales de Franz con mucosa nasal de oveja. Varios sistemas basados en PGA lineal y en forma de estrella modificadas con diferentes ligandos (incluyendo el ácido docosahexaenoico, ácido hialurónico (HA), odorranalectina), así como sistemas entrecruzados del PGA en forma de estrella y la mezcla física con un HA entrecruzado (HA-CP®). A continuación, se realizó estudios de biodistribución mediante administración intranasal de los candidatos seleccionados, seguidos de la cuantificación ex vivo con la técnica IVIS y el ensayo de fluorescencia estándar después de la homogeneización de órganos y los estudios histológicos del cerebro. Los datos obtenidos mostraron claramente la presencia de las diferentes plataformas en el cerebro e, su internalización en células del bulbo olfativo y una buena difusión en el cerebro a través de diferentes áreas, llegando incluso a detectarse en el hipocampo. Los candidatos seleccionados se han escalado y en la actualidad su evaluación biológica en un modelo in vivo está en curso. En conclusión, se ha diseñado, desarrollado y validado diferentes plataformas basadas en PGA capaces de llegar al cerebro a través de la administración intranasal, constituyendo una base prometedora para el tratamiento de múltiples trastornos relacionados con el cerebro. / [CA] Els tumors malignes del cervell i del sistema nerviós central representen el 21% dels tumors en nens i són la segona causa principal de mort per càncer pediàtric després de la leucèmia. Els gliomes d'alt grau que continuen sent incurables amb taxes de mortalitat altes: una supervivència a cinc anys del 4,7 % per a pacients amb glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) i menys d'un any en pacients amb glioma pontí intrínsec difús (DIPG). Els nivells baixos de penetració del fàrmac a través de la barrera hematoencefàlica i la baixa taxa de supervivència associada ressalten en la necessitat de noves propostes de tractament per a una necessitat clínica no satisfeta. L'administració intranasal ofereix un enfocament no invasiu prometedor que eludeix el metabolisme hepatogastrointestinal i la barrera hematoencefàlica, cosa que permet l'administració directa del nas al cervell. Els poliglutamats (PGA) representen excel·lents candidats per a l'administració al cervell a causa de la seva biodegradabilitat i multivalència, la qual cosa dóna suport a la introducció covalent de fàrmacs i grups objectiu i pot facilitar la transició del nas al cervell. La conjugació covalent de l'agent terapèutic a la cadena polimèrica ofereix una estabilitat prolongada en la circulació sanguínia i un major control sobre l'alliberament del fàrmac al microambient tumoral. Aquesta tesi se centra en el desenvolupament de nous conjugats PGA-fàrmac dissenyats racionalment i una plataforma intranasal segura i eficient per a l'administració dirigida i l'alliberament del fàrmac al cervell com a tractament del glioma pediàtric. Es va desenvolupar una família de conjugats de poliglutamat que incorporen l'inhibidor de CDK palbociclib, utilitzant diferents enllaçadors sensibles a estímuls i nivells variables de càrrega de fàrmacs. Estudiem l'efecte del fàrmac hidrofòbic conjugat sobre la conformació en solució de PGA lineals i en forma d'estrella. Amb dispersió de raigs X d'angle petit i dicroisme circular, demostrem l'evolució del sistema conjugat en augmentar la càrrega de fàrmac. A més, establim el vincle entre la conformació dels conjugats i la seva activitat biològica provada en cèl·lules GBM i DIPG derivades de pacients. Les nostres troballes van il·lustrar la necessitat d'una comprensió profunda de les propietats fisicoquímiques dels nanosistemes estudiats que poden ajudar a predir-ne el resultat biològic. Per a la detecció ràpida de la formulació intranasal basada en els portadors de PGA, vam establir amb èxit una plataforma de detecció ex vivo basada en cèl·lules de difusió verticals de Franz amb mucosa d'ovella. Diversos sistemes basats en PGA lineal i en forma d'estrella amb fraccions conjugades (inclòs l'àcid docosahexaenoic, àcid hialurònic (HA), odorranalectina), així com partícules reticulades (a través de cicloaddició azida-alquí o enllaços disulfur) i la barreja física amb un HA es van provar els polímers creuats (HA-CP®). Els estudis de biodistribució després de l'administració intranasal es van fer en candidats seleccionats, seguits de la quantificació ex vivo amb la tècnica IVIS i l'assaig de fluorescència estàndard després de l'homogeneïtzació d'òrgans i els estudis histològics del cervell. Les dades obtingudes van mostrar clarament el transport del nas al cervell, la internalització cel·lular dels conjugats al bulb olfactiu i, el que és més interessant, una bona difusió del cervell a través de diferents àrees, arribant fins i tot a l'hipocamp. Els sistemes seleccionats es van ampliar i la preparació per a l'avaluació biològica en un model in vivo està en curs. En general, vam ser capaços de dissenyar, desenvolupar i validar diferents plataformes basades en PGA capaces d'arribar al cervell mitjançant l'administració intranasal, la qual cosa podria ser la base per al tractament de múltiples trastorns relacionats amb el cervell. / [EN] Malignant brain and central nervous system tumors account for ~21% of tumors in children and represent the second leading cause of pediatric cancer deaths after leukemia. Standard chemotherapy allows a ~95% five-year survival rate for patients with low-grade gliomas. Unfortunately, high-grade gliomas remain generally incurable and suffer from high mortality rates - a 4.7% five-year survival for glioblastoma multiform (GBM) patients and less than one year in patients with diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG). Low levels of drug delivery through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the associated poor survival rate highlight the necessity for novel treatment approaches for an unmet clinical need. Intranasal administration offers a promising non-invasive approach that circumvents hepato-gastrointestinal metabolism and the BBB, thereby enabling direct nose-to-brain delivery. Polyglutamates (PGAs), represent excellent candidates for brain delivery due to their biodegradability and multivalency, which supports the covalent introduction of drugs and targeting moieties to facilitate the nose-to-brain transition. Covalent conjugation of therapeutic agents to the polymeric main chain offers prolonged stability in the blood circulation and increased control over the drug release in the tumor microenvironment if adequately designed considering endogenous triggers, including acidic pH, an increased reductive environment, or the overexpression of specific proteases. This thesis focuses on developing novel, rationally-designed PGA-drug conjugates as a safe and efficient intranasal platform for targeted delivery and drug release in the brain as a pediatric glioma treatment. We developed a family of PGA-drug conjugates incorporating the CDK inhibitor palbociclib that employed different stimuli-responsive linkers and varying drug loading levels and studied the effect of drug loading on the solution conformation of linear and star-shaped PGAs. We demonstrated system evolution upon increased drug loading with SAXS and CD. Moreover, we established a link between conjugate conformation and their biological activity, as evaluated in patient-derived GBM and DIPG cells. Our findings illustrated the necessity of a deep understanding of the physico-chemical properties of studied nanosystems that can aid in predicting their biological outcome. For the development of an intranasal formulation, we successfully established an ex vivo screening platform based on vertical Franz diffusion cells with sheep mucosa. We evaluated several systems based on linear and star-shaped PGA with conjugated moieties (including docosahexaenoic acid, hyaluronic acid, odorranalectin), crosslinked particles (via azide-alkyne cycloaddition or disulfide bonds), and physical mixtures with a hyaluronic acid cross polymer (HA-CP®). After intranasal administration with selected candidates, we performed biodistribution studies, followed by ex vivo quantification with the IVIS spectrum in vivo imaging system and fluorescent assays after organ homogenization and brain histological studies. The obtained data demonstrated nose-to-brain transportation, internalization of conjugates in the olfactory bulb and robust diffusion through different brain areas, even reaching the hippocampus. We also scaled up selected systems and preparations for biological evaluation in an in vivo model that is currently ongoing. Overall, we were able to design, develop, and validate different PGA-based platforms capable of arriving at the brain via intranasal, which might be the base for the treatment of multiple brain-related disorders. / Melnyk, T. (2024). Drug Dellivery to the Brain Using Polymer Therapeutics as an Intranasal Platform for Pediatric Glioblastoma Treatment [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/203498