<p>Suncokretova sačma ima manju zastupljenost u peletiranim sme&scaron;ama za<br />ishranu životinja od sojine sačme zbog većeg udela sirovih vlakana. Sirova<br />vlakna depresivno deluju na svarljivost obroka i proizvodne rezultate, a mogu<br />da imaju negativan uticaj na fizički kvalitet peleta. Pri peletiranju sme&scaron;a za<br />ishranu životinja u poslednje vreme značajna pažnja se posvećuje<br />funkcionalnim promenama makronutrijenata, jer se smatra da ove promene<br />pozitivno utiču na fizički kvalitet peleta. Razvojem modernih analitičkih tehnika,<br />posebno termalne analize, moguće je opisati promene na skrobu u procesu<br />peletiranja, nastale usled uticaja toplote i vlage. Sa druge strane, promene na<br />proteinskoj komponenti u procesu peletiranja nisu dovoljno obja&scaron;njene.<br />Najče&scaron;će se tumačenja svode na pretpostavke, bez obja&scaron;njenja o promenama<br />u veličini molekula proteina, kao i njihovoj koncentraciji. Inovativan pristup ove<br />doktorske disertacije je usmeren na opisivanje uticaja dodatka sojine i<br />suncokretovih sačmi različitog sadržaja proteina u sme&scaron;e na bazi kukuruza na<br />tehnolo&scaron;ke parametre procesa peletiranja, funkcionalne promene<br />makronutrijenata (želatinizaciju skroba i denaturaciju i degradaciju proteina) i<br />fizički kvalitet peleta. U okviru svake sme&scaron;e takođe je ispitivan uticaj procesnih<br />parametara, prečnika otvora sita mlina čekićara (2, 3 i 4 mm), vremena<br />produženog kondicioniranja parom (bez produženog kondicioniranja, 5 i 10<br />minuta) na fizički kvalitet peleta. Istraživanja su pokazala da temperatura<br />peletiranja, specifična potro&scaron;nja električne energije i udeo pra&scaron;ine u peletama<br />zavise od sirovinskog sastava sme&scaron;a, prečnika otvora sita mlina čekićara i<br />vremena zadržavanja u kondicioneru, pri čemu temperatura peletiranja i<br />specifična potro&scaron;nja električne energije rastu, a udeo pra&scaron;ine u peletama<br />opada sa porastom koncentracije proteina u sme&scaron;ama. Dokazano je i da<br />proces peletiranja utiče na funkcionalne promene makronutrijenata,<br />želatinizaciju skroba i strukturne promene na proteinima. Takođe je dokazano i<br />da za optimalno vreme zadržavanja materijala u kondicioneru, smanjenje<br />prečnika otvora sita mlina čekićara i povećanje sadržaja proteina u sme&scaron;ama<br />utiču na pobolj&scaron;anje fizičkog kvaliteta peleta, tj. tvrdoće peleta i stepena<br />otiranja peleta. Optimalni uslovi procesa peletiranja određeni su metodom<br />željene funkcije. Dat je predlog opsega procesnih parametara za dobijanje<br />peleta minimalnog stepena otiranja uz optimalnu specifičnu potro&scaron;nju<br />električne energije.<br />Istraživanja u ovoj doktorskoj disartaciji dala su doprinos novim saznanjima o<br />uticaju dodatka sačme različitog sadržaja proteina (37,3, 40,3 i 42,6 %) na<br />fizički kvalitet peleta. Kvalitet peleta sa dodatkom suncokretove sačme je<br />poređen sa kvalitetom peleta sa dodatom sojinom sačmom, kao i kvalitetom<br />peleta od čistog kukuruza, u cilju obja&scaron;njenja uticaja izvora i koncentracije<br />proteina. Ispitivanja su vr&scaron;ena ne samo za standardno vreme kondicioniranja,<br />nego uz primenu najsavremenijih postupaka termičke obrade hrane za<br />životinje, tj. uz upotrebu produženog kondicioniranja od 5 i 10 minuta.<br />Doprinos nauci je dat i time &scaron;to je pokazano da proces peletiranja utiče ne<br />samo na denaturaciju i degradaciju proteina, nego i na njihovo povezivanje.</p> / <p>Sunflower meal has a lesser presence in pelleted compound feed than<br />soybean meal due to a higher proportion of raw fiber. Raw fiber has<br />depressing effect on the digestibility and production results, and can have a<br />negative impact on the physical quality of the pellets. Lately, considerable<br />attention is paid to the functional changes of macronutrients in pelleting of<br />animal feed. It is believed that these changes have a positive impact on the<br />physical quality of the pellets. With the development of modern analytical<br />techniques, especially the thermal analysis, it is possible to describe the<br />changes of starch in pelleting process, caused by the impact of heat and<br />moisture. On the other hand, changes of the protein components in the<br />pelleting process are not sufficiently explained. The most common<br />interpretation is reduced to the presumption, with no explanation of changes in<br />the size of protein molecules, as well as in their concentration. The innovative<br />approach of this dissertation is focused on describing the effect of the addition<br />of soybean meal and sunflower meals, with different protein content, in<br />mixtures based on corn, on the technological parameters of the pelleting<br />process, functional changes of macronutrients (starch gelatinization, and<br />protein denaturation and degradation), and physical quality of the pellets.<br />Within each of the mixtures, the influence of process parameters, the diameter<br />of the hammer mill sieve openings (2, 3 and 4 mm), duration of long term<br />steam conditioning (without extended conditioning, 5 and 10 minutes) on the<br />physical quality of the pellets was also investigated. Studies have shown that<br />pelleting temperatures, the specific power consumption and the proportion of<br />dust in pellets were dependent of composition of the mixtures, the diameter of<br />the hammer mill sieve openings, and residence time in the conditioner.<br />Pelleting temperature and specific power consumption increased, and the<br />extent of fines in pellets decreased with increasing of concentration of protein<br />in the diets. Additionally, it is proved that pelleting process affects functional<br />changes of macronutrients, starch gelatinization and structural changes in<br />proteins. It is also proved that for the optimal retention time of material in<br />conditioner, decrease of diameter of the hammer mill sieve openings and<br />increase of protein content in the diets had positive effect on the physical<br />quality of pellets, i.e. pellet hardness and degree of abrasion of pellets. The<br />optimum process conditions in pelleting process were determined by the<br />method of desired function. A proposal has been made for setting the range of<br />process parameters for obtaining the minimum degree of abrasion of pellets,<br />with optimal specific energy consumption.<br />The research within this Ph.D. thesis contributed to the knowledge about the<br />effects of addition of sunflower meal with different protein content (37.3, 40.3<br />and 42.6 %) on the physical quality of the pellets. Quality of pelleted mixtures<br />with sunflower meal added were compared with the quality of pelleted mixtures<br />with soybean meal added and quality of pelleted corn, in order to explain the<br />effects of starch concentration, protein concentration and protein source.<br />Studies were performed not only for the standard time of conditioning, but with<br />the use of modern techniques for heat treatment of animal feed, i.e. with the<br />use of long term conditioning process for a 5 or 10 minutes. Additional<br />contribution to science has been given with showing that the pelleting process<br />causing not only the denaturation and degradation of proteins, but also<br />synthesis of proteins.</p>

Production of and demand for Canadian canola meal have been increased yearly. In order to improve the competitiveness of canola meal domestically and internationally, as well as to develop potential markets for canola meal, it is necessary to develop canola meal-based products that have high feed values and can be easily transported. The objectives of this research were: 1) to investigate the effects of temperature and time of conditioning during pelleting process on the nutritive values of canola meal in terms of chemical profiles, protein and carbohydrate subfractions, and energy values, using the AOAC procedures, CNCPS v6.1 and NRC (2001), respectively; 2) to detect the effects of temperature and time of conditioning during the pelleting process on rumen degradation and intestinal digestion characteristics and predicted protein supply of canola meal, using the in situ procedure, the three-step in vitro procedure, and the NRC 2001 model; and 3) to determine pelleting-induced changes in spectral characteristics of molecular structures of canola meal using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) with univariate and multivariate analysis, and reveal the relationship between molecular structures of protein and carbohydrate and nutrient values, rumen degradation and intestinal digestion characteristics, and predicted protein supply of canola meal. Three different conditioning temperatures (70, 80 and 90ºC) and two different conditioning time (50 and 75 sec) were applied in this research. Two different batches of canola meal from a commercial feed company were selected. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 × 2 factorial arrangement was employed in this research. Molecular spectral functional groups related to protein, cellulosic compounds, and carbohydrates were used in the spectral study. This research indicated: 1) soluble crude protein (SCP) was decreased and neutral detergent insoluble CP (NDICP) was increased with increasing temperature; 2) the lowest protein rumen degradation of pellets was observed at conditioning temperature of 90 ºC and protein rumen degradation was increased by pelleting; 3) the amount of protein digested in the small intestine tended to increase with increasing conditioning temperature; 4) pelleting under different temperatures and time in the current study shifted the protein digestion site to the rumen, rather than to the small intestine; 5) with respect to predicted protein supply, based on the NRC 2001 model, increasing conditioning temperature tended to increase the metabolizable protein supply of canola meal pellets to dairy cattle; 6) changes in the molecular structure of canola meal induced by pelleting can be detected by ATR-FTIR; 7) not only protein molecular structure characteristics but also carbohydrate molecular structure characteristics play important roles in determining nutrient values, rumen degradation and intestinal digestion characteristics, and the predicted protein supply of canola meal.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:32:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 5490.pdf: 1141768 bytes, checksum: a5a2a49b5f220f5e424dbe6dc6784e42 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-14 / Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos / Algae are organisms with which studies have been made on the uptake of carbon dioxide, as a source of lipids for research on biofuels such as fertilizers and soil. But little is known about the interaction of such organisms with higher plants. Thus, the general objective of this master thesis was to reuse the algal biomass of Selenastrum capricornutum Printz (Chlorophyceae class) e Chlorella sorokiniana Shihira e Krauss (Trebouxiophyceae class) in pelleting seed Bowdichia virgilioides, native to the Brazilian Savanna that are classified as threatened with extinction and whose wood has attributes for the furniture industry, besides the medicinal properties already reported in other studies. First, the seeds were grown in a greenhouse, with the following treatments: a) seeds naked; b) pelleted seeds with white glue based on polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at water and gypsum; c) seeds pelleted with glue based white polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at wet algal biomass of Selenastrum capricornutum and gypsum; d) pelleted seeds with white glue based polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at wet algal biomass of Chlorella sorokiniana and gypsum. Fungicide and insecticide were added to the silicato and gypsum for agricultural according to industry directions. The parameters mean emergence time (days), weight (g) dry and cool, length (cm) of aerial and root portions and number of nitrogen fixing nodules in the roots don t showed statistically significant difference between treatments. The variable "emergency percentage" showed that pelleted seeds with C. sorokiniana biomass as a cement material constituent showed value equivalent to conventional treatment (naked), paving the way for new studies pelleting with agal biomass of that species. As higher be the algae intracellular biochemical values, higher be the chances to achieve satisfactory results, because the seed can be use algae biochemical components at its development. In a second stage, there was pelleted seed sown in an area of brazilian savanna and the treatments were: a) naked seed; b) pelleted seeds with white glue based on polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at water and gypsum; c) pelleted seeds with white glue based on polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at wet algal biomass of Selenastrum capricornutum and gypsum with fungicide and insecticide; d) pelleted seeds with white glue based on polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at water and silicate for agricultural; and e) pelleted seeds with white glue based on polyvinyl acetate diluted to 8% at wet algal biomass of Selenastrum capricornutum and silicate for agricultural. Fungicide and insecticide were added to the silicato and gypsum for agricultural according to industry directions. For this experiment hood, it was observed that treatment with only gypsum had a significantly lower percentage of emergence. The treatment with silicate was considered as an effective material coating to the sucupira seed pelleting process, cultivating in savanna field. Thus, the alga Chlorella sorokiniana showed to be an efficient cementing material for pelleting process and silicate for agricultural a promising coating material, when it comes to planting in the field. / Microalgas tem sido alvo em estudos que visam à captação de dióxido de carbono. Esses microrganismos também vêm sendo utilizados como fonte de lipídios para produção de biocombustíveis e estudos relatam sua biomassa como potenciais fertilizantes de solo. Mas, pouco se sabe sobre a interação de tais organismos com vegetais superiores. O objetivo geral desse trabalho foi reutilizar a biomassa de Selenastrum capricornutum Printz (classe Chlorophyceae) e Chlorella sorokiniana Shihira e Krauss (classe Trebouxiophyceae) na peletização de sementes de Bowdichia virgilioides (sucupira preta, sucupira do cerrado), espécie nativa do cerrado brasileiro que está classificada como ameaçada de extinção e cuja madeira possui atributos para a indústria moveleira, além das propriedades medicinais já relatadas em vários trabalhos. Primeiramente, as sementes foram semeadas em casa de vegetação, com os seguintes tratamentos: a) sementes nuas (sem pélete); b) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% em água e gesso agrícola; c) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% em biomassa algal úmida de S. capricornutum e gesso agrícola; d) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% com biomassa algal úmida de C. sorokiniana e gesso agrícola. Ao gesso agrícola foram acrescentados fungicida e inseticida. Tempo médio de emergência (dias), peso (g) seco e fresco, comprimento (cm) das partes aéreas e radiculares e o número de indivíduos contendo nódulos fixadores de nitrogênio nas raízes não apresentaram diferença estatística significativa entre os tratamentos. Contudo, as plântulas de sementes peletizadas com C. sorokiniana, como constituinte do material cimentante, apresentaram porcentagem de emergência equivalente ao tratamento convencional (nua). Observamos que quanto mais elevados forem os valores bioquímicos intracelulares da alga, há mais chances de obtermos resultados satisfatórios, já que a semente pode utilizar tais compostos em seu desenvolvimento. Em um segundo momento, a semeadura de sementes peletizadas foi realizada em uma área do cerrado situada no campus da Universidade Federal de São Carlos (21°57 S, 47°52 W, a 863 m de altitude), cidade de São Carlos-SP. Os tratamentos foram: a) sementes nuas (sem pélete); b) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% em água e gesso agrícola; c) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% em biomassa úmida de S. capricornutum e gesso agrícola; d) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% em água com silicato para uso agrícola; e) sementes peletizadas com cola branca à base de acetato de polivinila diluída a 8% em biomassa úmida de S. capricornutum e silicato para uso agrícola. Ao silicato e gesso para uso agrícola foram acrescentados fungicida e inseticida segundo as recomendações dos fabricantes. Para este experimento em campo, observou-se que o tratamento somente com gesso agrícola proporcionou uma porcentagem de emergência significativamente menor do que o tratamento sementes nuas , sendo o silicato considerado um material mais eficiente como revestimento no processo de peletização de sementes de sucupira do cerrado cultivadas em campo. Assim, a alga C. sorokiniana mostrou-se um material cimentante eficiente no processo de peletização e o silicato para uso agrícola mostrou-se um material de revestimento promissor, em se tratando de plantio em campo.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o desempenho produtivo, a atividade enzimática pancreática e o rendimento de carcaça e cortes de frangos alimentados com rações fareladas e peletizadas com ou sem adição de protease. Foi realizada, também, a análise econômica dos tratamentos experimentais. Para tanto, foram utilizadas 768 aves, criadas de 1 a 42 dias de idade, distribuídas em um delineamento inteiramente casualizado em arranjo fatorial 2x2x2 (formas físicas da ração, níveis nutricionais e inclusão ou não de protease) com oito repetições por tratamento. As aves receberam os seguintes tratamentos experimentais: T1- ração farelada com redução de níveis nutricionais e sem adição de protease; T2- ração farelada com redução de níveis nutricionais e com adição de protease; T3- ração farelada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e sem adição de protease; T4- ração farelada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e com adição de protease; T5- ração peletizada com redução de níveis nutricionais e sem adição de protease; T6- ração peletizada com redução de níveis nutricionais e com adição de protease; T7- ração peletizada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e sem adição de protease; T8- ração peletizada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e com adição de protease. Os resultados foram analisados por meio do pacote estatístico SAS (2012). A peletização das rações promoveu melhora nos índices zootécnicos de frangos de corte. A adição de protease exógena não exerceu efeito principal sobre o desempenho e rendimento de carcaça e cortes, mas em dietas com redução de proteína bruta e aminoácidos, melhorou os índices econômicos da criação de frangos de corte, assim como o processo de peletização de forma geral. A adição de protease exógena e redução dos níveis de proteína e aminoácidos promoveram menor atividade da quimotripsina. Rações peletizadas com níveis nutricionais recomendados e adição de protease apresentaram os maiores custos de produção / The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance, pancreatic enzyme activity and carcass yield and cuts of broilers fed with mashed and pelleted diets with or without addition of protease. Also, it was performed economic analysis of experimental diets. Seven hundred sixty eight birds were reared from 1 to 42 days old, distributed in a completely random design in a 2x2x2 factorial arrangement (physical forms of feed, nutritional levels and with or without addition of protease) with eight replicates per treatment. The birds had received the following experimental treatments: T1 mashed diet with reduced nutritional levels and without addition of protease; T2 mashed diet with reduced nutritional levels and with addition of protease; T3 mashed diet with recommended nutritional levels and without addition of protease; T4 mashed diet with recommended nutritional levels and with addition of protease; T5 pelleted diet with reduced nutritional levels and without addition of protease; T6 pelleted diet with reduced nutritional levels and with addition of protease; T7 pelleted diet with recommended nutritional levels and without addition of protease;T8 pelleted diet with recommended nutritional levels and with addition of protease. The results were analyzed using the statistical program SAS (2012). The pelleted diets provided improvement in performance parameters of broilers. The addition of exogenous protease did not have main effect on the performance and carcass yield and cuts, but in diets with reduced crude protein and amino acids, improved economic index of the rearing of broilers, as well as the pelleting process generally. The addition of exogenous protease and reduced levels of protein and amino acids provided lower activity of chymotrypsin. Pelleted diets with recommended nutritional levels and addition of protease showed the highest production costs

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o desempenho produtivo, a atividade enzimática pancreática e o rendimento de carcaça e cortes de frangos alimentados com rações fareladas e peletizadas com ou sem adição de protease. Foi realizada, também, a análise econômica dos tratamentos experimentais. Para tanto, foram utilizadas 768 aves, criadas de 1 a 42 dias de idade, distribuídas em um delineamento inteiramente casualizado em arranjo fatorial 2x2x2 (formas físicas da ração, níveis nutricionais e inclusão ou não de protease) com oito repetições por tratamento. As aves receberam os seguintes tratamentos experimentais: T1- ração farelada com redução de níveis nutricionais e sem adição de protease; T2- ração farelada com redução de níveis nutricionais e com adição de protease; T3- ração farelada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e sem adição de protease; T4- ração farelada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e com adição de protease; T5- ração peletizada com redução de níveis nutricionais e sem adição de protease; T6- ração peletizada com redução de níveis nutricionais e com adição de protease; T7- ração peletizada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e sem adição de protease; T8- ração peletizada com níveis nutricionais recomendados e com adição de protease. Os resultados foram analisados por meio do pacote estatístico SAS (2012). A peletização das rações promoveu melhora nos índices zootécnicos de frangos de corte. A adição de protease exógena não exerceu efeito principal sobre o desempenho e rendimento de carcaça e cortes, mas em dietas com redução de proteína bruta e aminoácidos, melhorou os índices econômicos da criação de frangos de corte, assim como o processo de peletização de forma geral. A adição de protease exógena e redução dos níveis de proteína e aminoácidos promoveram menor atividade da quimotripsina. Rações peletizadas com níveis nutricionais recomendados e adição de protease apresentaram os maiores custos de produção / The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance, pancreatic enzyme activity and carcass yield and cuts of broilers fed with mashed and pelleted diets with or without addition of protease. Also, it was performed economic analysis of experimental diets. Seven hundred sixty eight birds were reared from 1 to 42 days old, distributed in a completely random design in a 2x2x2 factorial arrangement (physical forms of feed, nutritional levels and with or without addition of protease) with eight replicates per treatment. The birds had received the following experimental treatments: T1 mashed diet with reduced nutritional levels and without addition of protease; T2 mashed diet with reduced nutritional levels and with addition of protease; T3 mashed diet with recommended nutritional levels and without addition of protease; T4 mashed diet with recommended nutritional levels and with addition of protease; T5 pelleted diet with reduced nutritional levels and without addition of protease; T6 pelleted diet with reduced nutritional levels and with addition of protease; T7 pelleted diet with recommended nutritional levels and without addition of protease;T8 pelleted diet with recommended nutritional levels and with addition of protease. The results were analyzed using the statistical program SAS (2012). The pelleted diets provided improvement in performance parameters of broilers. The addition of exogenous protease did not have main effect on the performance and carcass yield and cuts, but in diets with reduced crude protein and amino acids, improved economic index of the rearing of broilers, as well as the pelleting process generally. The addition of exogenous protease and reduced levels of protein and amino acids provided lower activity of chymotrypsin. Pelleted diets with recommended nutritional levels and addition of protease showed the highest production costs

This thesis describes the characteristics, treatment and processing of biomass into a form shaped solid biofuels. It contains an overview of the requirements for pellets quality, possible means of improving the quality of pellets and methods of processing materials in order to achieve the desired quality of pellets. This thesis has shaped economic production of biofuels and shaped the recommendations for the design of pelletizing production line alternative pellets.

<p>Apple pomace is a by-product of the industrial production of apple juice, amounting to approximately 20-30% of freshly processed apples. Several million tonnes of apple pomace is produced in the world annually. Fresh apple pomace is characterised by high sugar and moisture content, which makes it susceptible to microbial contamination, uncontrolled fermentation and spoiling. Despite increasingly stricter legal regulations in managing biodegradable waste, large quantities of apple pomace are still being disposed of at landfills, posing a serious environmental issue. Since apple pomace has a certain nutritive value, it seems necessary to consider possibilities for using it as animal feed.<br />The main goal of this research was to examine the possibility for using dried apple pomace as animal feed, i.e., as a raw material in the industrial production of animal feed. Accordingly, the nutritive value of dried apple pomace was examined, along with the process of pelleting, since pelleting is one of the most common technological procedures in the industrial production of animal feed.<br />The testing of the chemical composition of dried apple pomace, used to determine its nutritive value, included the analyses of the content of raw proteins, raw fats, raw fibres, ash, neutral detergent fibres (NDF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), lignin, total sugars, individual sugars &ndash; fructose, glucose and sucrose, essential amino-acids, vitamins and mineral elements. When compared with the majority of commonly used animal feeds, the dried apple pomace was found to contain large amounts of raw fibres and sugars and small amounts of proteins and fats.<br />In accordance with the determined nutritional composition of the dried apple pomace, concentrate mixtures for fattening pigs were prepared, after which a trial was performed to examine the effect of feeding the animals on the mixtures containing dried apple pomace in different concentrations on the production performance of the fattening pigs. The results of the feeding trial showed that adding 7% of dried apple pomace in the growing period and 10% in the finishing period had no negative effects on the animal health, production and meat yield.<br />In the next part of the research, the dried apple pomace was pressed into pellets, with three starting moisture contents in the unpelleted material &ndash; 10%, 13% and 16%. The examination of the produced pellets showed that they had very good physical quality in terms of the pellet durability index (PDI) and hardness. The value of PDI exceeded 99% for all three starting moisture contents. The bulk density of the pelleted dried apple pomace was nearly twice as large as it was before pelleting. Increasing the moisture content in the dried apple pomace from 13% to 16% resulted in lower temperatures and energy consumption in the process of pelleting.<br />The goal of the next part of the research was to examine the effect of adding apple pomace into the concentrate mixture models consisting of corn and sunflower meal on the physical quality of the obtained pellets, the specific electricity consumption of the pellet press and the temperature of the pellet press die. Three concentrate mixture models were prepared for the test, comprising 0%, 10% and 20% of dry apple pomace. The mixtures were conditioned by adding water to reach the moisture content of 13%, 15% and 17% and pelleted at three settings of the press die (8, 24 and 30 mm). Therefore, three parameters were varied at three levels, in a full factorial experimental design. The dependent variables (response variables) were: PDI, pellet hardness (H), dust content in the pellets, bulk density of the pellets, matrix temperature of the pellet press and the specific energy consumption of the pellet press. The results showed that adding dried apple pomace into the model concentrate mixtures led to a significant increase in pellet quality, especially in terms of increasing the PDI value and decreasing the dust content. The results of the analysis of standard scores (SS) showed that the optimum values for pellet quality, specific energy consumption and temperature of the press die were obtained for the model concentrate mixture containing 10% of dried apple pomace, using 30 mm press die and with 17% of the starting moisture content. Good results were also obtained for the model concentrate mixture containing 20% of dried apple pomace, using 24 mm press die and with 17% of the starting moisture content.<br />To define the effect of the concentration of dried apple pomace in the model mixtures, the press die thickness and the starting moisture content on the change of the response variables, the response surface methodology (RSM) was used. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the response models for each of the analysed quality parameters and pelleting processes, showed which of the process parameters (percentage of apple pomace in the concentrate model mixtures, press die thickness and starting moisture content) had statistically the biggest effect on creating the mathematical response models, presented in the form of the second order polynomial (SOP). The results of this research showed that the increase in the percentage of dried apple pomace, press die thickness and starting moisture content led to an increase in PDI value, hardness (H) and bulk density of the pellets and a decrease in the content of dust in the pellets. The increase in the share of apple pomace in the model mixtures and in the die thickness of the pellet press led to an increase in the specific energy consumption and die temperature. On the other hand, the increase in the starting moisture content led to a decrease in the specific energy consumption and die temperature.<br />In the last part of the research, on the basis of the determined nutritive value of the dried apple pomace the author made a calculation, in terms of optimising the concentrate mixtures containing dried apple pomace in the optimum amount for feeding particular species and categories of farm animals. The results suggest the way of practical utilization of dried apple pomace in feeding farm animals as well as in the industrial production of animal feed.</p>

I en värld med ökande koldioxidhalter i atmosfären och höjd medeltemperatur, råder det inga tvivel om att vi står inför en rad utmaningar för att minska användandet av bland annat fossila bränslen som generar skadliga utsläpp. Det finns många alternativ till oljebaserade bränslen, och ett som har ökat markant de senaste åren är bränslepellets. Bränslepellets är ett träbaserat biobränsle som i sitt kompakta tillstånd erbjuder ett bra värmevärde och är klimatneutralt. För att tillverka pellets måste råmaterialet först termiskt torkas, från en fukthalt på ca 55 % till ca 10 %, vilket i dagsläget kan motsvara upp till en fjärdedel av hela energiåtgången i pelleteringsprocessen. Med den ökade efterfrågan av bränslepellets finns också ökade förutsättningar för energieffektiviseringar i pelletsproduceringen, speciellt i torkningssteget.  Drinor AB har tagit fram en avvattningsmaskin av biomaterial som heter CDP, och med den är det möjligt att avvattna biomaterial till ca 30 %, vilket skulle reducera både tiden och energin det tar att termiskt torka materialet. Avvattningen sker under tryck på minst 40 ton, där vattnet mekaniskt pressas ut ur råmaterialet. Hur avvattningen påverkar råmaterialet, speciellt i en pelletframställning, är oklart och syftet med detta arbete var att ta reda på hur pelleteringsegenskaperna påverkas efter pressning med CDP, och om det finns möjligheter att spara energi i malningsdelen i pelleteringsprocessen. Målet med arbetet var att ta reda på hur CDP påverkar pelletskvaliteter i form av hårdhet och densitet, samt om friktionsutvecklingen i pelleteringsmatrisen förändras, genom att framställa pellets ur 3 scenarion. I ett scenario ska en traditionell pelletsframställning liknas, med endast termisk torkning och i de resterande två scenarion implementeras CDP som försteg till den termiska torkningen. I ett av dessa två scenarion mals inte träflisen innan pelletering, för att se om energi kan sparas utan att offra pelletskvalitet. Ett annat mål var att, per scenario, ta reda på vid vilken fukthalts- och temperaturkombination de bästa pelletsen tillverkades med avseende på hög densitet och hårdhet samt låg friktionsutveckling. Resultaten visade att scenariot med CDP som komplement till termisk torkning och utan malningprocess, producerade pellets med högst hårdhet, högst densitet och lägst friktionsutveckling under båda fukthalterna på pelleteringsmaterialet och nästintill samtliga matristemperaturer. Det scenario som hade endast termisk torkning producerade pellets med lägst densitet och hårdhet samt högst friktion under nästan alla temperaturer och fukthalter. När den bästa fukthalts- och temperaturkombinationen togs fram per scenario, så var scenariot med CDP och utan malning bäst. Pellets producerade där hade ökad densitet, nästan tredubblad hårdhet samt mer än halverad friktionsutveckling i pelleteringsmatrisen, jämfört med scenariot som imiterade traditionell pelletsframställning med endast termisk torkning. Skulle det scenariot med CDP och utan malningsprocess implementeras i en verklig industriell skala skulle det innebära stora förutsättningar för ökad produktion av pellets med bättre kvalitet, samt ett minskat energianvändande i form av reducerad termisk torkning och minskat användande av malningsprocessen. / In a world with growing carbon dioxide contents in the atmosphere and elevated average temperature, there is no doubt that we are faced with a number of challenges to reduce the use of, among other things, fossil fuels that generate harmful emissions. There are many alternatives to oil-based fuels, and one that has increased markedly in recent years is fuel pellets. Fuel pellets are a wood-based biofuel that, in its compact state, offers a good thermal value and is climate neutral. In order to produce pellets, the raw material must first be thermally dried, from a moisture content of about 55 % to about 10 %, which can currently account for up to at least a quarter of the total energy consumption in the pelleting process. With the increased demand for fuel pellets, there are also increased possibilities for energy efficiency in the pellet production, especially in the drying stage. Drinor AB has developed a biomaterial dewatering machine called CDP, with which it is possible to drain the biomaterial to a moisture content of about 30%, which would reduce both the time and the energy it takes to thermally dry the material. The dewatering pressure is at least 40 tonnes, where the water is mechanically squeezed out of the raw material. How the dewatering affects the raw material, especially in a pellet production, is unclear and the purpose of this work was to find out how the pelleting properties are affected after pressing with CDP and if there is potential for saving energy in the grinding process in the pelleting process. The aim of the work was to find out how CDP affects pellet qualities in terms of hardness and density, and if the friction development in the pelleting dye changes, by making pellets out of 3 scenarios. In one scenario, traditional pellets production should be resembled, with only thermal drying, and in the remaining two scenarios, CDP is implemented as a complement to thermal drying. In one of these two scenarios, the wood chips were not milled before pelleting, to see if energy can be saved without sacrificing pellet quality. Another goal was to determine, by each scenario, what moisture and temperature combination the best pellets were produced with respect to high density and hardness and low friction development. The results showed that the CDP scenario, as a complement to thermal drying and without grinding process, produced the hardest pellets, highest density and lowest friction development during both moisture levels of the pelleting material and almost all die temperatures. The scenario that only had thermal drying produced pellets with the lowest density and hardness, as well as maximum friction under almost all temperatures and moisture levels. When the best moisture and temperature combination was achieved by each scenario, the scenario with CDP and without grinding was the best. Pellets produced there had increased density, almost triple the hardness, and more than half the friction development in the pelleting die, compared to the scenario that imitated traditional pellets production with only thermal drying. Should the scenario with CDP and without grinding process be implemented on a real industrial scale, it would provide great conditions for increased production of better quality pellets, as well as reduced energy use in the form of reduced thermal drying and reduced use of the grinding process.

The bulk of Zimbabwe’s groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) crop is grown on sandy soils in the smallholder sector where sustainable production is hindered by acid soil infertility. The study goal was thus to examine the effects of soil acidity amelioration by four Ca-containing materials on nutrient composition, vegetative and reproductive growth, and quality of groundnut to formulate ameliorative strategies to improve productivity on acid soils. The effectiveness of calcitic lime (CL), dolomitic lime (DL), gypsum (G) and single superphosphate (SSP) in ameliorating soil acidity was determined in field experiments conducted for three seasons at two Research Stations in Zimbabwe, and in greenhouse experiments conducted for two seasons at Harare Research Station. In both experiments the lime application rates were from 0 to 4000 kg ha-1, while G application rates were from 0 to 3450 kg ha-1, and those of SSP were from 0 to 250 kg ha-1. Calcitic or dolomitic lime applied at 2000 or 4000 kg ha-1 increased soil pH and Ca and Mg contents in the pod and root zones, and in the plant material. Gypsum and SSP applications at 200 and 250 kg ha-1 respectively, had no significant effects on pH, Ca and Mg levels, but when applied in equivalent amounts of Ca as lime, gypsum improved soil Ca status. Effects of the four ameliorants on the N, P and K levels in the soils and in plant material were generally neither significant nor consistent. The direct and residual benefits of application of CL or DL were manifested in improved plant stands, better growth, nodulation, productivity and quality of groundnut. Gypsum applied at equal Ca rates as CL or DL was the superior Ca-source in improving pod and kernel quality. By the end of the third season, the increases in cumulative kernel yields due to application of 4000 kg ha-1 lime over non-application were up to 319%. The major growth-limiting factors on the studied acid soils were identified as deficiencies of Ca and Mg, and low pH per se. In a field experiment conducted to evaluate the tolerance of 15 groundnut genotypes to soil acidity, significant differences in yield and nutrient utilization efficiency of the genotypes were observed, implying that productivity on acid soils can be increased by growing genotypes efficient in uptake and utilization of nutrients. Results from greenhouse and growth chamber studies conducted to examine the effects of pH (3.0 - 7.0) and its interactions with Ca (0 - 2000 µM Ca) on early seedling growth and reproductive growth of groundnut indicated that low pH per se has a major detrimental impact on seedling survival, growth, pod formation, yield and quality of groundnut, but not on germination. The adverse effects of low pH were more pronounced in the absence of Ca, and became progressively less as the solution Ca concentrations increased. Further experiments showed that it is feasible to mitigate the adverse effects of soil acidity on groundnut germination and seedling survival by pelleting seeds with small amounts of CaCO3, or priming with CaSO4. / Dissertation (PhD (Plant Production: Agronomy))--University of Pretoria, 2003. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Herstellung geformter Adsorbentien aus den Agrarreststoffen Reisstroh und Bagasse. Dazu wurde eine neue Prozessroute entwickelt, anhand welcher die Ausgangsstoffe zunächst pelletiert und anschließend pyrolysiert werden. Ziel ist es ein Produkt mit hoher mechanischer Festigkeit (Ball Pan Hardness) > 80 % und spezifischer Oberfläche > 300 m2/g zu erzeugen. Dies ist durch die Auswahl geeigneter Mischungszusammensetzungen, die Anpassungen der Pelletierparameter und des Pyrolyseregimes möglich. Zusätzliche Aktivierungsschritte führen zu einer weiteren Verbesserung der spezifischen Oberfläche. Auf Basis der experimentellen Untersuchungen wurden mittels statistischer Methoden Einfluss- und Zielgrößen in Hinblick auf die anschließende empirische mathematische Modellentwicklung ausgewählt. Damit kann die spezifische Oberfläche anhand von validierten, nicht-linearen Regressionsmodellen mithilfe von Prozessparametern abgebildet werden kann.:Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Symbolverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Grundlagen 2.1 Zusammensetzung und struktureller Aufbau biogener Reststoffe 2.1.1 Aufkommen biogener Reststoffe 2.1.2 Stoffliche Zusammensetzung biogener Reststoffe 2.1.3 Struktureller Aufbau biogener Reststoffe 2.2 Pelletierung biogener Rohstoffe 2.2.1 Wirkungsweise der Pelletierung 2.2.2 Stand der Forschung zur Einflussnahme auf die spezifischen Eigenschaften von Pellets aus biogenen Rohstoffen 2.3 Charakterisierung und Herstellung technischer Adsorbentien 2.3.1 Begriffsklärung, Einteilung und typische Eigenschaften technischer Adsorbentien 2.3.2 Stand der Forschung zu Wandlungsvorgängen und ihren Effekten bei der Herstellung kohlenstoffhaltiger Adsorbentien aus biogenen Rohstoffen 2.4 Ableitung der Aufgabenstellung zur Herstellung von geformten Adsorbentien aus Agrarreststoffen 3 Material und Methoden 3.1 Untersuchte biogene Reststoffe 3.2 Herstellung der Produkte und Begriffsklärung 3.2.1 Herstellung der Biomassepellets 3.2.2 Pyrolyse der biogenen Reststoffe und Pellets 3.2.3 Aktivierung der Biomassen und Formkohlen 3.3 Charakterisierung der Ausgangsstoffe, Zwischenprodukte und Produkte 3.3.1 Stoffliche Zusammensetzung 3.3.2 Mechanisch-physikalische Eigenschaften 3.3.3 Adsorptionsspezifische Eigenschaften 3.4 Vorgehensweise zur empirischen Modellentwicklung 3.5 Fehlerbetrachtung 4 Diskussion der experimentellen Ergebnisse 4.1 Charakterisierung der eingesetzten Rohstoffe 4.2 Auswahl geeigneter Mischungszusammensetzungen und Pelletierbedingungen zur Herstellung von Formkohlen 4.3 Einfluss der Pyrolysebedingungen auf die Eigenschaften der Formkohle 4.3.1 Einfluss des Pelletwassergehaltes auf die spezifische Oberfläche der Formkohlen 4.3.2 Einfluss des Pyrolyseregimes auf die spezifische Oberfläche der Formkohlen 4.4 Einfluss von Aktivierungsschritten auf die Eigenschaften der Formaktivkohlen 4.4.1 Einfluss der chemischen Aktivierung der Biomassen 4.4.2 Einfluss der Aktivierung der Formkohlen 5 Empirische mathematische Modellentwicklung 5.1 Auswahl relevanter Einflussgrößen und Zielgrößen für die empirische Modellentwicklung 5.2 Modellentwicklung zur Abbildung der spezifischen Oberfläche anhand ausgewählter Einflussgrößen 6 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 7 Literatur 8 Anhang A. Recherche zur Zusammensetzung ausgewählter Agrarreststoff B. Übersicht über ausgewählte, wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen zur Herstellung von Biomassepellets C. Übersicht über ausgewählte, wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen zur Aktivierung von (pyrolysierten) Agrarreststoffen D. Übersicht über ausgewählte, wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen zur Herstellung (geformter) Kohlenstoffadsorbentien aus Reisstroh und Bagasse E. Übersicht über die Ball Pan Hardness und spezifische Oberfläche kommerziell erhältlicher Form(aktiv)kohlen F. Übersicht über die genutzten Messgeräte und die zugehörigen Messfehler G. Zusammensetzung der Aschen aus Bagasse und Reisstroh H. Übersicht über ausgewählte Charakteristika der hergestellten Formkohlen und kommerziell erhältlicher Produkte