Der mitteleuropäische Wasserfroschkomplex umfasst Pelophylax lessonae (Genotyp LL), Pelophylax ridibundus (RR) und deren Hybriden Pelophylax esculentus (LR), der sich hemiklonal durch Rückkreuzen mit LL in lessonae-esculentus (L-E)-Populationen oder RR in ridibundus-esculentus (R-E)-Populationen reproduziert. Außerdem können Hybriden in reine Hybridpopulationen (E) bilden, in denen triploide Individuen die Elternarten funktionell ersetzen. Bislang ist wenig über die molekularen Mechanismen bekannt, die der klonalen Gametenbildung in der Keimbahn der Hybridform zugrunde liegen. In dieser Studie wurden erstmalig 160 Gene der Elternarten untersucht, die an der Gametenbildung beteiligt sind. Zusätzlich wurden 131 SNPs von 52 dieser Gene von 652 Wasserfröschen aus 26 Populationen analysiert. Im Ergebnis wurden 14 SNPs von 10 Genen entdeckt, deren Frequenzen mit dem Populationssystem assoziiert waren. In Übereinstimmung mit ihren Funktionen könnten diese Gene im Zusammenheng mit den system-spezifischen hybridogenetischen Reproduktionsmodi stehen. Sowohl transkriptomische als auch SNP-Daten lieferten Hinweise auf genetische Introgression, d. h. einen Transfer lessonae-spezifischer Allelen in den ridibundus-Genpool oder umgekehrt. Außerdem wurde bei P. lessonae eine kryptische genetische Diversität beobachtet. SNP-Analysen ergaben auch, dass LR-Individuen aus E-Populationen eine höhere genetische Ähnlichkeit mit LR-Individuen aus R-E als aus L-E-Populationen aufweisen. Diese Ergebnisse werfen die Frage nach dem Ursprung der E-Populationen auf, von denen bisher angenommen wurde, dass sie aus L-E-Populationen hervorgegangen sind. Die neuen molekularen Daten stehen mit den hemiklonalen Fortpflanzungsmodi von P. esculentus im Einklang und unterstreichen, dass diese wahrscheinlich auf komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen verschiedenen Genen und Faktoren basieren. / The Central European water frog complex comprises Pelophylax lessonae (genotype LL), Pelophylax ridibundus (RR), and their hybridogenetic hybrid Pelophylax esculentus (LR), which reproduces by backcrossing with LL in lessonae-esculentus (L-E) populations or RR in ridibundus-esculentus (R-E) populations. In addition, hybrids are able to reproduce in all-hybrid (E) populations in which triploid individuals functionally replace the parental species. To date, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying clonal gamete formation in the hybrid germline. In this study, 160 genes from P. lessonae and P. ridibundus known to be involved in gametogenesis were characterized for the first time. In addition, 131 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) from 52 of these genes were analyzed, derived from 652 water frogs of 26 populations. As a result of logistic regressions, 14 SNPs of 10 genes were detected whose frequencies were associated with the population system. Consistent with their functions during gametogenesis, these genes can be considered as candidates associated with the system-specific hybridogenetic modes, i.e. clonal inheritance of the L and/or R genomes. Both transcriptomic and SNP data provided evidence for genetic introgression, i.e. a transfer of lessonae-specific alleles into the ridibundus gene pool or vice versa. In addition, cryptic genetic diversity was observed in P. lessonae. SNP analysis also revealed that LR individuals from E populations exhibit higher genetic similarity to LR individuals from R-E than L-E populations where triploid frogs do not occur. These findings raise the question of the origin of E populations, which were previously thought to have arisen from L-E populations after the emergence of triploid hybrids. The new molecular data are consistent with the reproductive modes of P. esculentus and emphasize that clonal inheritance is most likely caused by complex interactions of different genes and genetic factors.

Asexual modes of reproduction are usually based on the principle of copying (cloning) DNA from the female and passing it on to the offspring. For most asexually reproducing vertebrates the progeny develop from an unreduced and often unfertilised egg. This is driven by the mechanisms of parthenogenetic and gynogenetic reproduction. While in the former the clonal germ cell develops spontaneously and separately, in the latter a sexual partner is needed to activate the cleavage of the ovum, although without the fusion of the sperm and egg. Therefore in both cases there is no fertilization and the clonal progeny consist solely of daughters, hence the majority of previous studies have only focused on asexual female lineages. However, on rare occasions asexual clonal males can arise when the right fertilization occurs. Whilst these offspring are usually infertile, fertile diploid asexual males have been discovered in just three genera of hybrid origin in vertebrates. One of these unique cases is the European water frog complex of the genus Pelophylax, whose distribution includes the Czech Republic. In areas around the upper Odra River populations of hybrid males were recently discovered who form stable all-male lineages, similar to those formed by asexual females. The results of this study show that males produce...