The current research explored the thesis that cognitive self-recognition might have an executive function in 3- and 4-year-olds. Although it is well established that children recognise themselves in mirrors by the end of infancy, the cognitive and behavioural impact of this capacity has yet to be elucidated. Experiments 1 to 6 showed that preschool children could form and maintain a cognitive link between the self and external stimuli, as a result of which, self-referent stimuli were given mnemonic priority. Experiments 4 to 8 indicated that in tasks involving self-recognition, 3- and 4-year-olds’ ability to process other-referent stimuli was compromised by self-focus. Finally, Experiments 9 and 10 demonstrated that mirror self-recognition increased preschoolers’ tendency to self-regulate, leading them to behave in line with socially accepted standards. Together, these experiments provide novel evidence to confirm that cognitive self-recognition has a role in preschoolers’ performance on tasks requiring memory, attention, inhibition, and planning. This implies that when salient, the self may become the ultimate executer of behaviour. By observing 3- and 4-year-olds’ differential processing of self- and other-referent stimuli we infer the existence of a functionally active, self-reflective agent. Moreover, the role of the self is temporally extended, influencing children’s cognition and behaviour in the past (Experiment 1 to 3), present (Experiments 4 to 8) and future (Experiments 9 to 10). This implies that preschool children may have developed the foundations necessary to build the experience of personal identity.

Thesis (MOccTher (Interdisciplinary Health Sciences. Occupational Therapy))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / According to the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework (2002), the objective of occupational therapy is to help people to participate in activities of daily life which are purposeful and meaningful to them and in which they are expected to participate. According to educators, learners are increasingly experiencing problems with performing academic tasks, and learning barriers, especially with regard to visual perception, are on the increase. Various external factors, such as educational policy pertaining to inclusive education and a younger age for school admission, as well as internal factors, such as learning readiness, may contribute to the occurence of learning barriers that can restrict the academic progress of learners. Learners are increasingly being referred to occupational therapists. Occupational therapists also provide guidance to learner supporters. Occupational therapists refer learners with visual perception problems with possible eye tracking problems for vision therapy, after which occupational therapy is resumed. Meanwhile, learners still have to function in the school environment, which means that incorrect capturing of information processing can take place. According to literature, the promotion of eye movements is regarded as part of occupational therapy services in the USA. In South Africa the proposed model by Fishman-Hellerstein and Fishman (1999: 148) of cooperation between optometrists and occupational therapists is followed. In this approach eye movements are regarded as underlying building blocks of visual perception and the effect of eye movements on the academic performance of learners is clearly described (Green, 2001). There is a shortcoming in the literature where eye movements are promoted as integral to a visual perception programme. Occupational therapy needs to investigate effective methods of intervention that are time and cost effective in order to address the growing problem, especially in South Africa. A clinical experimental field trial with a convenience sample was used to investigate the effect of occulomotor exercises in combination with a visual perception programme on the visual perception of seven-year-old learners with visual perception problems. The study population was seven-year-old learners with visual perception learning barriers from neighbouring schools with foundation phase education. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Sifting procedures included questionnaires to parents and educators, “Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration” 4th edition of Beery (1997) for visio-motor integration, and a screening test by an optometrist. A visual perception programme was presented to the control groups and the experimental groups over ten sessions. An eye exercise of 15 minutes was included with the experimental groups. The Developmental Test of Visual Perception, 2nd edition, by Hammill, Pearson and Voress (1993) was used as measuring instrument in the pre-test and post-test to determine effectiveness, which was statistically indicated by using the repeated measures ANOVA. The results indicated no significant difference between the visual perception programme with eye exercises and the one without. Two tests of the sub-ability of visual perception showed a tendency towards improvement. The educators indicated that the learners benefited functionally from the programme and that it made a difference in academic performance. Behaviour and emotional events may have influenced the results of the study because of external factors. It is recommended that the study be repeated with a larger sample and a longer programme presented over six months to a year. Occupational therapists can include eye exercises integral to activity participation by adapting activities and through the optimal use of space for activities so that the learner would have to adapt to it visually.

Tesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 1994. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Visual-motor integration plays an important role in the development of a child. Developmental deficits in this area can, for example, be detrimental to a child's school-readiness or scholastic achievements. Visual-motor integration problems should be diagnosed as early as possible so that remediation can take place. The American Beery Developmental Test for Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) is widely used as a screening technique for visual-motor abilities by psychologists, occupational therapists, educators and remedial teachers in South Africa. In order to determine whether this American standardised test offers valid results for a group of South African subjects, the results of children in the VMI:1982 and VMI:1989 were compared to their results in the South African Copying Test. A sample of 40 pre-school children from a pre-primary school in Stellenbosch were selected. Only children with normal visual acuity, who had not undergone an occupational therapy evaluation, or school readiness test, during the previous three months, were included in the sample. A significant relationship was found between the results of the VMI:1982 and VMI:1989. The results of both the VMI:1982 and VMI:1989 correlated significantly with the results of the Copying Test. Performance in the tests correlated with chronological age as well as teacher evaluation of ability development. lt was concluded that the VMI may be regarded as a valid test of visual-motor integration in the group of subjects studied. lt is recommended that future studies including children from all cultural groups in South Africa should also be undertaken. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Visueel-motoriese integrasie speel 'n belangrike rol in die ontwikkeling van die kind. Ontwikkelingsagterstande in hierdie area kan byvoorbeeld 'n kind se skoolgereedheid of skolastiese prestasie nadelig be"invloed. Probleme ten opsigte van visueel-motoriese integrasie behoort so vroeg as moontlik opgespoor te word sodat remediering kan geskied. Die Amerikaanse BeeryOntwikkelingstoets vir Visueei-Motoriese lntegrasie {VMI) word in Suid-Afrika wyd deur sielkundiges, arbeidsterapeute, opvoedkundiges en remedierende onderwysers benut vir die evaluering van visueel-motoriese vaardighede. Om te bepaal of hierdie Amerikaans gestandaardiseerde toets geldige resultate vir 'n groep SuidAfrikaanse toetslinge !ewer, is die prestasies van kinders in die VMI:1982, sowel as die VMI:1989 met hul prestasies in die Suid-Afrikaanse Natekentoets vergelyk. 'n Steekproef van 40 voorskoolse kinders uit 'n pre-primere skool op Stellenbosch is gekies. Slegs kinders met normale gesigskerpte, en diegene wat nie gedurende die vorige drie maande 'n arbeidsterapie- of skoolgereedheidsevaluering ondergaan het nie, is by die ondersoek ingesluit. Beduidende korrelasies is tussen die VMI:1982-resultate en VM1:1989-resultate bevind. Die resultate van beide die VMI:1982 en VMI:1989 het beduidend met die van die Natekentoets gekorreleer. Prestasie in die toetse het met kronologiese ouderdom, sowel as onderwyser-beoordelings van vaardigheidsontwikkeling, gekorreleer. Daar is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die VMI wel geldige resultate in die geval van hierdie spesifieke ondersoekgroep gelewer het. Verdere navorsing, wat oak kinders uit alle kultuurgroepe in Suid-Afrika insluit, word aanbeveel.

published_or_final_version / Social Work / Master / Master of Social Sciences

Effects of a substance abuse prevention program on the locus of control and self-concept of 148 Hispanic and Anglo third and fourth grade children were evaluated. A 2 x 2 (race x group) multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures was carried out using the Health Resources Inventory, Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale, and two roster and rating sociometric questionnaires. The results of the analysis revealed a significant effect of time and interactions between time and race and time and group. Mean scores on the Health Resources Inventory and both sociometric questionnaires increased from pre-test to post-test for all children. In addition, children's scores indicated a change toward an internal direction on the Locus of Control Scale. Only the sociometric questionnaire measuring the children's perception of their popularity showed a significant group effect. The experimental group, those whose teachers had used the prevention curriculum, increased their perception of how well they were liked by their classmates. However, their actual popularity as measured by the average of their classmates' rating did not change. Possible explanations and methodological shortcomings are discussed.

This study examined the psychometric properties for the Draw-A-Person (DAP) test (Naglieri, 1988). Data were collected from 191 children following the accepted procedure from an earlier study (Badger & Jones, 1988). Drawings were scored using both Harris' (1963) and Naglieri's (1988) scoring systems following the procedures outlined in the manuals. Basically, the DAP test demonstrated reliable and valid properties. The Naglieri's (1988) scoring system was favored in this study because it demonstrated more consistent internal consistency, higher inter- and intra-rater reliability and satisfactory construct validity. Positive and moderate high correlations with the scores obtained from Goodenough-Harris's scoring systems supported that the Naglieri's version measured the same concept as the old system. Psychometric properties of the DAP test support use in clinical and research settings to gather data from children about their general abilities.

This study employed a pretest/posttest control group design to investigate the achievement of second grade Hispanic students from a predominantly low socio-economic school in a large metropolitan city. The thirty Hispanic students with the lowest scores on the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test were randomly assigned to the experimental group (n =15) or the control group (n=15). The treatment consisted of 16, 30-minute sessions of play intervention--2 times per week for 8 weeks. The providers of play therapy were school personnel trained in the principles of child-centered play therapy including tracking, reflecting feelings, and setting limits. Instruments were administered to all subjects prior to the 8 week treatment period and in the two-week period following treatment and included the GMRT, the Joseph Pre-School Primary Self-Concept Test (JPPSCST) and the Child Behavior Checklist Teacher Report Form (CBCTRF). Statistical analyses included a (t-test; 2 tail; p > .05), discriminant analysis, and cross validation. The results indicated that children who received play therapy did not achieve notably higher mean scores in reading. However, play therapy did improve the experimental group's self-concept scores and their internal behavior scores, though not significantly. All differences between the experimental and the control groups were within 1 point except the JPPSCST self-concept mean scores were 1.53 in favor of the experimental group. The CBCTRF Internal behavior mean scores were 1.20 in favor of the experimental group indicating a positive trend. The CBCTRF External behavior scores were 2.74 in favor of the control group. None of the differences was statistically significant and the 4 null hypotheses were accepted. The sample size (N =30) suggests the need to exercise caution in interpreting these findings.Further research utilizing a longer time period between pretesting and posttesting is recommended and may provide more definite information regarding the impact of play therapy on children's reading, self-concept, and internal and external behavioral characteristics.

There are two principal definitions of response-reinforcer contingency in the current literature which Scott and Piatt (1985) have labeled the phi coefficient and Rescorla index. For both definitions, contingencies are sensitive to two conditional probabilities of reinforcement, that given the occurrence and that given the non-occurrence of the criterion response. However, phi coefficient is sensitive also to the probability of the criterion response. In order to examine the relationship between children's perceived contingencies of teacher reinforcements, as defined by the phi coefficient and Rescorla index, and the children's perceptions of competence and measures of their academic performances, 119 5th grade children (54 boys and 65 girls) were studied. Two variables derived specifically from the phi coefficient, the probability of children's responses and the probability of teacher reinforcements, were also examined in their relationship to perceived contingencies and academic performance. In general, children's perceptions of teachers as both contingently rewarding and punishing, as defined by the phi coefficient and Rescorla index, were predictive of good academic performance by the children and teachers rating them as academically competent. Childrens' perceptions of their academic competence were also predictive of their academic performances and teacher ratings. The children's perceptions of academic competence were related to their reporting themselves as likely to produce positive achievement behavior but unlikely to produce negative achievement behavior. No significant relationship was found between the children's perceived contingencies of teacher reinforcements and their perceptions of their own academic competence. These results were discussed as supporting Bandura's self-efficacy theory. Thus, expectations of reinforcement contingency and expectations of personal competence jointly determine actual competence. The contingency findings support the utility of the Children's Perceived Contingencies of Reinforcements Questionnaire as a measure of contingency in the applied setting.

A number of authors have suggested recently that the behavioral characteristics and self-perceptions of learning disabled and emotionally disturbed children are so similar as to negate the fruitfulness of trying to differentiate between these two groups. These characteristics are quite similar for the two special education groups when they have been compared independently of each other to regular education students. In order to provide support for these prior studies, the self-concepts and locus of control of 36 learning disabled, emotionally disturbed, and regular education students were compared. A significant difference was found between the LD and RE students in terms of self-concept only. No significant differences were noted between the ED and RE students. These results are discussed in relation to the somewhat conflicting results of prior studies with implications for future research.

This study investigated the self-concepts of five, six, and seven year old children after participation in organized and nonorganized play programs. The subjects were sixty boys and girls participating in Little League Tee-Ball programs and sixty boys and girls participating in the City Playground Program in the Fort Worth, Texas, area during the 1979 spring and summer season. The instrument used to measure self-concept was the Purdue Self-Concept Scale, Results indicated that the type of organization has little effect upon the self-concept of the children in this study.