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The progression of Liberalism and Conservatism is explored through the case studies of Peru and Uruguay.

Peru has long had to contend with a lack of national and political integration. Yet its APRA party is the oldest mass-based reformist party in the region, and its mission has historically been to integrate the nation. The APRA, since its inception, aroused more political hostility than any other force in Peru, and consequently was repressed, even outlawed, for decades. Years of repression and clandestinity contributed to a lack of doctrinal clarity and undemocratic tendencies within the party, which were to affect its capacity to govern. The nature of the party, and the difficulty of its task, are the subject of this thesis. Despite the existence of democratic institutions, large sectors of the population exist outside of formal legal, political, and economic systems; there is a gap between state and society. Successful democratic reform would incorporate these marginalized sectors. When the APRA came to power in 1985, it proposed to do so by focusing on the needs of the poorest. Expectations were high for the new government, in part because of its popular young leader, Alan Garcia, and in part because a decade of economic and social crisis had discredited both the military and the right as alternatives, resulting in unprecedented consensus for reform. Once it attained power, the APRA managed, for the first two years, to maintain support that was unique to reformist efforts in Peru. A sudden shift in strategy to confrontational rhetoric and authoritarian tactics destroyed the fragile consensus necessary for democratic reform. The politics of reform became the politics of polarization: a "winner take all" style debate in which cooperation and compromise were impossible. The outcome was policy stagnation, a surge of reaction from extremes of the left and the right, and severe strain on the political system. The APRA party, rather than playing the role of the strong centre acted as a catalyst to the polarization process. In large part due to decades of sectarian and authoritarian strains that the party's 1980's renovation had not eliminated, it was virtually powerless in the face of increasingly erratic behaviour on the part of its leader. This thesis examines the evolution of the APRA from the time of the 1968 military "revolution" through the party's first three years in power. It explores the formulation and initial success of the consensus it built, the reasons for its breakdown, and the fate of the poor during that process. The difficult context in which the party had to operate will also be addressed. Finally, it attempts to contribute to the understanding of the challenges faced by reformers in Peru in particular and more generally by developing democracies.

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Throughout the history of international law, there have been diverse interpretations about the nature of Francisco de Vitoria’s ideas. Among the most influential are Critical Legal Studies’ views. According to them, Francisco de Vitoria was the founder of an international legal discourse that was ethnocentric, pro-colonial and imperialistic. As an original contribution to the study of international legal ideas and contrary to CLS interpretations, this study demonstrates that Vitoria’s international normative doctrines were a 16th century effort to promote universal ideas, which had some ethnocentric and pro-colonial distortions. This study considers the importance of the philosophical, theological and anthropological dimensions of Vitoria’s international legal doctrines. It analyses Vitoria’s views on the status of indigenous people, especially the Inca, in the 16th century historical context of the Spanish conquest of indigenous nations. Vitoria’s doctrine on the human nature of indigenous people was the foundation for his recognition of the existence of political communities in the New World, and the participation of indigenous nations in the international community. Vitoria’s rejection of medieval doctrines, on the universal authority of the pope, was the foundation for his dismissal of Spanish legal instruments, such as the Requerimiento, which justified the conquest of the Inca and other indigenous nations. Vitoria’s doctrines on the natural law of nations’ norms of trade, travel and evangelism were a central aspect of his normative justification for the Spanish presence in the New World. In the 16th century Spanish intellectual context, these norms were not inherently ethnocentric. However, because of Vitoria’s disregard of the consequences of the implementation of these norms in the historical context of the Spanish-indigenous nations’ international relations, they could have served to justify the Spanish conquest and colonization of the New World. This study shows that Vitoria’s most compelling justification for the Spanish use of force was the ending of the indigenous custom of human sacrifice, which was a violation of the right to life in the internal jurisdictions of indigenous nations.

ASTMH 64th Annual Meeting. October 25-29, 2015 Philadelphia Marriott Downtown Philadelphia, Pennsylvania USA / The bacteria Bartonella bacilliformis is the etiological agent of Carrion’s disease, which is a neglected poverty-related disease, affecting Mountain Andean valleys of Peru, Colombia and Ecuador. This disease, in absence of treatment presents a high mortality during the acute phase, called Oroya’s Fever. The second phase is characterized by the development of dermal eruptions, known as “Peruvian wart”. This bacterium is a fastidious slow growing microorganism, being difficult and cumbersome to culture and isolate from clinical sources. Then, the available data about phylogenetic relationship in clinical samples are really scarce, but suggesting high variability. The aim of the study was to perform direct blood analysis of B. bacilliformis Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), a genotyping tool, in patients with Oroya fever during an outbreak. The present study demonstrate that the direct blood MLST PCR is a technique useful in the phylogenic characterization of this fastidious microorganism endemic from Andean regions. In this study, we demonstrate that the outbreak of Oroya’s fever was caused by closely related Sequence Typing (ST) microorganisms and, additionally, new STs have been described.

ASTMH 64th Annual Meeting. October 25-29, 2015 Philadelphia Marriott Downtown Philadelphia, Pennsylvania USA / Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are the main cause of morbidity and mortality in children under 5 years worldwide. Bordetella pertussis is a highly contagious bacterium that can cause serious illness, and approximately half of infected infants less than 1 year old are hospitalized. Also, pertussis immunization series is not completed until six months of age, leaving young infants vulnerable to pertussis. In Peru, pertussis is an increasing health problem despite immunization efforts, and the role of B. pertussis in ARI is unknown. We determined the prevalence of B. pertussis among children under 5 years old admitted to Hospital Nacional Cayetano Heredia in Lima with diagnosis of ARI between Jan-2009 and Dec 2010. Epidemiological and clinical features were collected, and presence of B. pertussis was determined by PCR (pertussis toxin and IS481 gene). A total of 596 nasopharyngeal samples among children under 5 years were analyzed. In 114 (19.1%) samples were positive for B. pertussis. 32.5% of sample positive to B. pertussis were diagnosed as viral pneumonia at diagnosis. Importantly, 71.9% of cases were under 12 months of age and 58.8% have been contact with other ARI infected people. Significant differences in clinical symptoms between the total ARI cases and B. pertussis cases were not found. The most frequent symptoms in B. pertussis cases were fever (100%), rhinorrhea 78%, cough 71.9% and respiratory distress 60.5%. One child died due to the infection. B. pertussis cases showed a seasonal distribution with peaks during the months March June and November. This study shows the high prevalence of B. pertussis in infants who were hospitalized due to severe acute respiratory infections in Lima, Peru. Epidemiologic surveillance programs for B. pertussis are essential in the future in Peru