In Ghana, wastewater is frequently used as a source of irrigation water for crops in urban areas, due to water scarcity and an increasing population growth. The water contains high amounts of nutrients, but also other unwanted constituents such as heavy metals, pathogens and pharmaceutical residues and is a potential health risk for the consumers. This study aimed to determine the status of pharmaceutical pollution in irrigation water used in Chirapatre Estates, a suburb to Kumasi, Ghana. Chirapatre Estates is located on a hill sloping towards a stream, with a network of sewer lines connected to a Waste Stabilization Pond (WSP). Problems regarding disposal of pharmaceutical waste, frequently used medications in the area and water quality of irrigation water was analyzed through interviews and water analysis. The interviews were made with households, farmers and pharmacies and the water samples were collected at farms and the maturation pond, the final treatment in the WSP. The analysis focused on the water quality parameters; pH, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), total phosphorus, phosphate, total nitrogen and nitrate. The empirical study showed high use of malaria treatment medication and paracetamol for adults as well as children. No instructions of disposal of unused medications were expressed through the pharmacy or by the government, causing the majority of the inhabitants to dispose their leftovers in the trash. One can speculate that there might be a possible risk of finding some pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment, especially for the types of pharmaceuticals that can be persistent. The results indicated that the water quality from the WSP and at the farming sites was acceptable when compared to the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines, except for TSS and total phosphorus. Further treatment of the water is still suggested, since adjacent farms use the water frequently and the EPA guidelines are not fulfilled. Future studies are recommended to establish the pharmaceutical residues present in the stream water.

A presença de fármacos no ambiente é um problema preocupante em virtude dos efeitos ecotoxicológicos conhecidos, e ainda os que continuam desconhecidos. A água é um dos compartimentos ambientais mais afetado por esses contaminantes, já que é utilizado em diversas atividades humanas. A contaminação da água afeta não somente os humanos, mas também todos os demais seres vivos que vivem ou utilizam dessa água. Por esse motivo, o desenvolvimento de métodos para análise de medicamentos em matrizes ambientais é essencial para o monitoramento desses contaminantes. Além disso, os métodos já desenvolvidos podem ainda ser aplicados para auxiliar no desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias de tratamento de água, bem como no estudo de produtos de degradação de fármacos durante as etapas de tratamento. Para essas finalidades, são utilizadas técnicas cromatográficas com detecção por espectrometria de massas para obter a separação dos compostos, permitindo a quantificação e a identificação inequívoca. Para realização dessas análises é necessário adotar métodos de preparo de amostra que possibilitem a concentração dos analitos presentes, e também, a eliminação dos interferentes presentes na matriz. Dessa maneira, nesse trabalho foram desenvolvidos 2 métodos de análise, um usando a cromatografia gasosa convencional acoplada a espectrometria de massas (GC-MS), e outro usando a cromatografia bidimensional abrangente com detecção por espectrometria de massas usando analisador do tipo tempo de voo (GCxGC-ToF/MS) para análise de resíduo de fármacos em matrizes aquosas, ambos utilizando como técnica de preparo de amostra a microextração em fase sólida (SPME). Na análise usando SPME-GC-MS foi utilizado a derivatização in situ para evitar picos assimétricos e possibilitar uma melhor separação cromatográfica. Esse método foi aplicado em amostras de rio, águas residuárias de entrada e saída de estação de tratamento (ETE) e esgoto industrial. Em todas as amostras foi possível detectar a presença dos fármacos, porém somente na entrada da ETE foi possível quantificar a presença de cetoprofeno (KET) presente na concentração de 1050 ng L-1. Já para o método SPME-GCxGC-ToF/MS, devido o alto poder de separação do sistema bidimensional, foi possível separar 13 fármacos sem necessitar de derivatização. O método foi aplicado para amostra de rio, sendo que em nenhuma das amostras não foi detectado e quantificado os medicamentos em estudo. Em ambos os métodos foi aplicado planejamento experimental para otimizar o preparo de amostra e a reação de derivatização in situ quando utilizada. Após o desenvolvimento desses métodos, uma nova vertente foi estudada com o desenvolvimento de novas fases extratoras para extração por sorção em barras de agitação (SBSE) labmade foram desenvolvidas. Cerca de 7 novas fases extratoras foram desenvolvidas, sendo mistas tendo como base uma mistura de polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS) com outros polímeros e/ou outro material adsorvente. Essas fases foram testadas e comparadas com a barra de PDMS comercial na extração de 9 fármacos presentes em água. A barra que apresentou melhor desempenho tinha como fase extratora uma mistura de PDMS com 30% OV-17-vinil. Além disso, uma barra de SBSE contendo 5% carvão ativo foi aplicado com sucesso na análise de fenol em urina. Além dessas novas fases, foi explorado em conjunto o desenvolvimento de novas fases extratoras para extração por sorção nas paredes do frasco (VWSE) direcionados para extração de fármacos em água. As fases desenvolvidas eram compostas por uma mistura de carvão ativo com PDMS, e PDMS com divinilbenzeno (PDMS/DVB), em diferentes proporções. Por último, um aperfeiçoamento foi realizado na técnica de VWSE. Essas modificações foram testadas na extração de compostos com caracerísticas não-polares (progesterona) e polares (cafeína), e demonstrou eficiência na extração de ambos. / The occurrence of pharmaceutical drugs in the environment is a worldwide problem caused by the genotoxicity and ecotoxicity activities of those compounds. Water is one of most used natural resource in human activities which explain the presence of emerging contaminants. Those compounds affect not only humans but also aquatic animals that spend the whole life cycle in this environment. In order to monitor drugs in the environment, it is essential the development of analytical methods to analyze pharmaceutical drugs in environmental matrices. Moreover, those methods developed are useful for the development of new water treatment techniques, and analysis of drug metabolites formed during the water treatment process. To accomplish all these purposes, chromatographic methods of analysis coupled to mass spectrometry detection are essential to separate the analytes, and further to identify and quantify them unequivocally. Before the analysis, the sample preparation step is fundamental to concentrate the analytes, eliminate and clean-up all the matrices interferents. Thus, in this thesis is described the development of 2 methods, one using conventional gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), the latter one using comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry (GCxGC-ToF/MS) to analyze pharmaceutical drugs in water matrices. In both methods, solid phase microextraction (SPME) was used in the sample preparation procedure. In the SPME-GC-MS method in situ derivatization was applied to improve the chromatographic separation, providing neat and sharp peaks. This method were applied to analyze river, sewage and wastewater samples. In all samples were detected the presence of pharmaceutical drugs. However, one wastewater sample from the entrance of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) presented ketoprofen in the concentration level of 1050 ng L-1. GCxGC-ToF/MS method it was possible to accomplish a complete separation of 13 analytes absent of peak tailing, co-elution and degradation without a derivatization reaction. River water samples were analyzed using this method, although, in none of the compounds were present in the samples. In both methods, an experimental design was used to optimize the SPME extraction and derivatization reaction. A second phase in this study explored the development of new polymeric phases for stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE). About 7 new phases were developed, all phases were mixed of polidimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with other polymeric phases or with adsorptive material. All these new phases were tested and compared against the comercial version in the extraction of 9 pharmaceuticals compounds in water. The mixed polymeric phase of PDMS and OV-17-vinyl demonstrated a suitable selectivity to extract all pharmaceutical drugs in water. Also, a SBSE bar containing activated carbon 5% was applied in the analysis of phenol in urine. Also, it was studied the development of new polymeric phases applied for the vial wall sorptive extraction (VWSE) used in the analysis of drugs in water. These new phases were based on a mixture of PDMS with activated carbon, and PDMS combined with divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) in different amounts of each compound. At least, a new configuration in the VWSE was purposed. This new configuration was tested for the extraction of non-polar (progesterone) and polar (caffeine) compounds in water, and presented adequate response for both compounds.

A presença de fármacos no ambiente é um problema preocupante em virtude dos efeitos ecotoxicológicos conhecidos, e ainda os que continuam desconhecidos. A água é um dos compartimentos ambientais mais afetado por esses contaminantes, já que é utilizado em diversas atividades humanas. A contaminação da água afeta não somente os humanos, mas também todos os demais seres vivos que vivem ou utilizam dessa água. Por esse motivo, o desenvolvimento de métodos para análise de medicamentos em matrizes ambientais é essencial para o monitoramento desses contaminantes. Além disso, os métodos já desenvolvidos podem ainda ser aplicados para auxiliar no desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias de tratamento de água, bem como no estudo de produtos de degradação de fármacos durante as etapas de tratamento. Para essas finalidades, são utilizadas técnicas cromatográficas com detecção por espectrometria de massas para obter a separação dos compostos, permitindo a quantificação e a identificação inequívoca. Para realização dessas análises é necessário adotar métodos de preparo de amostra que possibilitem a concentração dos analitos presentes, e também, a eliminação dos interferentes presentes na matriz. Dessa maneira, nesse trabalho foram desenvolvidos 2 métodos de análise, um usando a cromatografia gasosa convencional acoplada a espectrometria de massas (GC-MS), e outro usando a cromatografia bidimensional abrangente com detecção por espectrometria de massas usando analisador do tipo tempo de voo (GCxGC-ToF/MS) para análise de resíduo de fármacos em matrizes aquosas, ambos utilizando como técnica de preparo de amostra a microextração em fase sólida (SPME). Na análise usando SPME-GC-MS foi utilizado a derivatização in situ para evitar picos assimétricos e possibilitar uma melhor separação cromatográfica. Esse método foi aplicado em amostras de rio, águas residuárias de entrada e saída de estação de tratamento (ETE) e esgoto industrial. Em todas as amostras foi possível detectar a presença dos fármacos, porém somente na entrada da ETE foi possível quantificar a presença de cetoprofeno (KET) presente na concentração de 1050 ng L-1. Já para o método SPME-GCxGC-ToF/MS, devido o alto poder de separação do sistema bidimensional, foi possível separar 13 fármacos sem necessitar de derivatização. O método foi aplicado para amostra de rio, sendo que em nenhuma das amostras não foi detectado e quantificado os medicamentos em estudo. Em ambos os métodos foi aplicado planejamento experimental para otimizar o preparo de amostra e a reação de derivatização in situ quando utilizada. Após o desenvolvimento desses métodos, uma nova vertente foi estudada com o desenvolvimento de novas fases extratoras para extração por sorção em barras de agitação (SBSE) labmade foram desenvolvidas. Cerca de 7 novas fases extratoras foram desenvolvidas, sendo mistas tendo como base uma mistura de polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS) com outros polímeros e/ou outro material adsorvente. Essas fases foram testadas e comparadas com a barra de PDMS comercial na extração de 9 fármacos presentes em água. A barra que apresentou melhor desempenho tinha como fase extratora uma mistura de PDMS com 30% OV-17-vinil. Além disso, uma barra de SBSE contendo 5% carvão ativo foi aplicado com sucesso na análise de fenol em urina. Além dessas novas fases, foi explorado em conjunto o desenvolvimento de novas fases extratoras para extração por sorção nas paredes do frasco (VWSE) direcionados para extração de fármacos em água. As fases desenvolvidas eram compostas por uma mistura de carvão ativo com PDMS, e PDMS com divinilbenzeno (PDMS/DVB), em diferentes proporções. Por último, um aperfeiçoamento foi realizado na técnica de VWSE. Essas modificações foram testadas na extração de compostos com caracerísticas não-polares (progesterona) e polares (cafeína), e demonstrou eficiência na extração de ambos. / The occurrence of pharmaceutical drugs in the environment is a worldwide problem caused by the genotoxicity and ecotoxicity activities of those compounds. Water is one of most used natural resource in human activities which explain the presence of emerging contaminants. Those compounds affect not only humans but also aquatic animals that spend the whole life cycle in this environment. In order to monitor drugs in the environment, it is essential the development of analytical methods to analyze pharmaceutical drugs in environmental matrices. Moreover, those methods developed are useful for the development of new water treatment techniques, and analysis of drug metabolites formed during the water treatment process. To accomplish all these purposes, chromatographic methods of analysis coupled to mass spectrometry detection are essential to separate the analytes, and further to identify and quantify them unequivocally. Before the analysis, the sample preparation step is fundamental to concentrate the analytes, eliminate and clean-up all the matrices interferents. Thus, in this thesis is described the development of 2 methods, one using conventional gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), the latter one using comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry (GCxGC-ToF/MS) to analyze pharmaceutical drugs in water matrices. In both methods, solid phase microextraction (SPME) was used in the sample preparation procedure. In the SPME-GC-MS method in situ derivatization was applied to improve the chromatographic separation, providing neat and sharp peaks. This method were applied to analyze river, sewage and wastewater samples. In all samples were detected the presence of pharmaceutical drugs. However, one wastewater sample from the entrance of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) presented ketoprofen in the concentration level of 1050 ng L-1. GCxGC-ToF/MS method it was possible to accomplish a complete separation of 13 analytes absent of peak tailing, co-elution and degradation without a derivatization reaction. River water samples were analyzed using this method, although, in none of the compounds were present in the samples. In both methods, an experimental design was used to optimize the SPME extraction and derivatization reaction. A second phase in this study explored the development of new polymeric phases for stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE). About 7 new phases were developed, all phases were mixed of polidimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with other polymeric phases or with adsorptive material. All these new phases were tested and compared against the comercial version in the extraction of 9 pharmaceuticals compounds in water. The mixed polymeric phase of PDMS and OV-17-vinyl demonstrated a suitable selectivity to extract all pharmaceutical drugs in water. Also, a SBSE bar containing activated carbon 5% was applied in the analysis of phenol in urine. Also, it was studied the development of new polymeric phases applied for the vial wall sorptive extraction (VWSE) used in the analysis of drugs in water. These new phases were based on a mixture of PDMS with activated carbon, and PDMS combined with divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) in different amounts of each compound. At least, a new configuration in the VWSE was purposed. This new configuration was tested for the extraction of non-polar (progesterone) and polar (caffeine) compounds in water, and presented adequate response for both compounds.

Avloppsvatten innehåller näring, bland annat kväve och fosfor som kan orsaka övergödningom det kommer ut i sjöar och vattendrag. Samtidigt behöver stora mängder näringsämnen tillföras i jordbruket för att producera mat. Ett sätt att effektivt ta till vara på näringen i avlopp och återföra den till jordbruket skulle kunna vara källsortering av avlopp. På så sätt samlas näringsämnena i en mindre volym och blandas inte med bad-, disk-, och tvättvatten. Examensarbetet syftade till att undersöka rötning som behandlingsmetod och teknik för att utnyttja energin i latrin. I rötning bryter mikroorganismer ner organiskt material anaerobt och producerar energirik biogas som kan användas till värme, el eller fordonsbränsle. Rötresten som blir kvar efter rötningen innehåller näringsämnen men också föroreningar. I studien undersöktes latrinens innehåll av tungmetaller och läkemedelsrester och hur läkemedelshalten påverkades under rötningsprocessen. För att utvärdera rötning som behandlingsmetod av latrin gjordes 44 satsvisa utrötningsför-sök i laboratorium. Latrinen hämtades från en latrininsamling i Norrtälje. Ymp från två aktiva rötningsanläggningar blandades med latrinen i gastäta glasflaskor vilka sattes på skakbord i ca 60 dagar. En del flaskor innehöll en tillsats av läkemedel lösta i metanol. Två parallella försök utfördes i olika temperaturer, i mesofil temperatur (37ºC) och i termofil temperatur (52ºC). Gasproduktion och gasens metanhalt mättes under försöksperioden för att beräkna latrinens biogaspotential. Efter avslutad rötningsperiod separerades vätskan och det fasta materialet i rötresten och frystes in i väntan på analys av läkemedelsrester. Biogasproduktionen var drygt 250 Nml CH4/g VS (ml metan per gram organiskt material vid tryck 1 atm och 0ºC) efter 60 dagar, vilket antas vara biogaspotentialen hos latrin. Det är i samma nivå som biogaspotentialen från hönsgödsel och svinkletgödsel. Gasproduktionen i flaskorna med tillsats av läkemedel var något högre och någon inhibering av processen kunde alltså ej påvisas. Kvävehalten i latrinen var 3,7 g/l, fosforhalten 1,0 g/l, kaliumhalten 1,0 g/l. Latrinens tungmetallhalter var under Naturvårdsverkets föreslagna gränsvärden för avloppsfraktioner som tillförs åkermark och skulle därför kunna användas som gödsel med dagens regelverk. Kadmiumfosforkvoten var 25 mg Cd/kg P vilket är lika mycket som medelvärde av Revaq-certifierat avloppsslam. Flera saker tyder på att latrinen som användes innehöll mer fekalier än urin i förhållande till vad som borde produceras och därmed inte fullt ut representerar ett komplett toalettavfall. Analyser gjordes av läkemedelskoncentrationer i vätskefasen av rötningsmaterialet före och efter olika långa perioder av rötning. Rötning visade sig inte vara någon effektiv metod för att rena latrin från läkemedel. Det var i fler fall som koncentrationen av läkemedel ökade än minskade under rötning. Ökningen kan bland annat ha att göra med att adsorptionsegen-skaper hos materialet förändras under rötningen och därmed frigörs substanserna och syns bättre i analysen av vätskefasen. Förekomsten av läkemedel i miljön är relativt väl undersöktmen däremot behövs mer förståelse för riskerna med läkemedel i vattenmiljö men framför-allt i jordbruksmiljö där kunskapsluckorna är stora / Wastewater contains nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous which can cause eutrophi-cation in lakes and streams. Meanwhile, large quantities of nutrients are used in agriculture in order to produce food. One way to utilize nutrients in wastewater and return them to agriculture could be source separation of sewage. This way, nutrients are collected in smallvolumes and are not mixed with bathing, washing, and cleaning water. This thesis aimed at investigating anaerobic digestion as a treatment method and technology to make use of the energy in latrine. In anaerobic digestion, microorganisms degrade organic material and produce energy rich biogas that can be used for heating, electricity, or vehicle fuel. The residue remaining after digestion contains nutrients but also pollutants. The study examined the content of heavy metals and drug residues in latrine, and to what extent the digestion process affected the pharmaceutical content. To evaluate the anaerobic digestion as treatment of latrines, 44 batch experiments wereperformed at laboratory scale. Latrine was taken from a collection basin in Norrtälje. Inoculum from two active anaerobic digestion plants were mixed with latrine in sealed glass bottles and put on shaking tables for approximately 60 days. Some bottles contained an addition of eight drugs dissolved in methanol. Two parallel experiments were performed one at mesophilic temperature (37ºC) and one at thermophilic temperature (52ºC). The volume of gas produced and methane content was measured for calculation of the biogas potential. After completion of the digestion period, the liquid and solids were separated and frozen pending analysis of drug residues. The biogas produced was a little over 250 Nml CH4/gVS after 60 days being comparable to production from pig and chicken manure. The bottles containing added substances showed no inhibition of the biogas process since the gas production was slightly greater in these. The nitrogen content of latrine was 3.7 g/L, the phosphorus content 1.0 g/L and potassium content of 1.0 g/L. The cadmium-phosphorus ratio was 25 mg Cd/kg P, same as the average of Revaq certified sewage sludge. The heavy metal concentrations were below the limits allowed for sewage fractions applied on arable land as proposed by the Swedish Environ-mental Protection Agency. The latrine could be used as fertilizer with current and proposed regulations. Several things indicate that the latrine used contained a higher feces-urine ratio than expected and therefore does not fully represent a complete blackwater. Analyses on drug concentrations were preformed on the liquid phase of the material before and after various periods of anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion proved not to be an effective method to reduce pharmaceuticals in latrine. There were more cases where the concentration of the drug increased rather than decreased during digestion. The increase could be due to changes in adsorption properties of the material during digestion, making them more observable in the analysis. The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment is relatively well known but more understanding is needed on the hazards of pharmaceutical residues in aquatic and especially agricultural environment.

Les résidus pharmaceutiques sont considérés comme un problème écologique émergent, à cause de leur présence et leur accumulation continue dans l’environnement. Même à des faibles concentrations, ces substances sont susceptibles de menacer l’ensemble des organismes vivants. Il est donc, urgent de développer les moyens techniques permettant leur élimination. Dans ce cadre s’inscrit le travail de cette thèse, il a pour objectif de traiter la carbamazépine, un antiépileptique largement détecté dans le milieu aquatique. Une première étude a été menée sur la biodégradation de la carbamazépine par des boues activées par biostimulation avec différentes sources de carbone conventionnelles. Une optimisation des différents paramètres opératoires a été également effectuée. En outre, une seconde étude a porté sur la biodégradation de la molécule cible par une souche fongique, et ce travail a été achevé par une troisième étude de synthèse mettant en place la technique de bioaugmentation fongique des boues activées afin d’améliorer la performance du traitement. / Pharmaceutical residues are considered an emerging environmental problem because of their presence and their continuous accumulation in the environment. Even at low concentrations, these substances may threaten all living organisms. It is therefore urgent to develop the technical means to eliminate them. In this framework is the work of this thesis, it intended to treat carbamazepine, an antiepileptic drug widely detected in the aquatic environment. A first study was conducted on the biodegradation of carbamazepine by activated sludge by biostimulation with various sources of conventional carbon. An optimization of the various operating parameters was also performed. In addition, a second study examined the biodegradation of the target molecule by a fungal strain, and this work was completed by a third synthesis study establishing technical fungal bioaugmentation of activated sludge to improve performance treatment.

Si les risques liés à la présence de résidus médicamenteux dans l'environnement sont encore méconnus, les premiers cas avérés et l'introduction récente de trois médicaments (2013) sur une liste de surveillance de l'UE imposent d'ores et déjà le développement de procédés de traitement capables d'éliminer cette pollution spécifique. C'est dans ce contexte que le traitement des effluents d'un service d'oncologie par un bioréacteur à membranes a été évalué dans cette thèse. Les effluents collectés sont caractérisés par une importante variabilité de la charge polluante et des concentrations médicamenteuses très élevées, parfois supérieures à 1 mg.L-1. Ces conditions n'ont pas favorisé le développement continu de la biomasse épuratrice. Il a toutefois été démontré que la toxicité de ces effluents n'est pas proportionnelle à la charge appliquée puisqu'une charge massique supérieure à 0.20 kgDCO.kgMVS-1.j-1 permet la croissance de la biomasse. Le colmatage des membranes a permis une rétention significative des médicaments sélectionnés. L'élimination des médicaments sélectionnés a par ailleurs été systématiquement améliorée par les boues acclimatées avec notamment le développement de capacités de biotransformation sur des molécules parfois uniquement éliminées par sorption dans les stations d'épuration. / The risks concerning the presence of pharmaceutical residues into the environment are still unknown. However, the first confirmed cases and the recent introduction of three drugs (2013) on a surveillance list of EU already require the development of processes able to remove this specific pollution. It is against that background that oncological ward wastewater treatment by a membrane bioreactor was investigated in this thesis. These effluents are characterized by a very variable charge and high pharmaceutical concentrations, sometimes above 1 mg.L-1. These conditions did not favor the continuous development of the biomass. However, it could be demonstrated that the toxicity of these effluents is not related to the applied charge since a food to microorganisms ratio above 0.20 kgCOD.kgMLVSS-1.d-1 allows biomass growth. Membrane fouling played a major role in the significant retention of the investigated drugs. In comparison to unacclimated activated sludge from WWTP pharmaceutical removal was systematically enhanced by the acclimated biomass with the development of biotransformation possibilities.

Major studies conducted in Europe and North America has concluded that the current processes in wastewater treatment plants insufficiently degrade micropollutants e.g. pharmaceutical residues. Several sorption and oxidation methods has therefore been investigated with the purpose of removing or degrading micropollutants in wastewater. The main purpose of this project was, firstly, to validate the results from a pilot study conducted by Tekniska verken i Linköping AB (2014) which investigated the use of ozone to degrade pharmaceutical residues. Secondly, to investigate and design a suitable process control strategy for the ozonation process. Four different tests were conducted during the project, a dose-response test, step-response tests, a trace test, and a performance test. A poorer average reduction of pharmaceutical residues was observed in this project compared to the pilot study. An average reduction of approximately 80% was observed at the highest tested dose, 0.67 mg O3/mg DOC, N corr. Whilst an average reduction of 90% was observed at approximately 0.46 mg O3/mg DOC, N corr, in the pilot study. However, the quality of the wastewater was worse during this project compared to the pilot study. ΔUVA254 and offgas concentration of ozone were found to be suitable control parameters for process control. A control strategy based on a combination of these parameters was designed, where ΔUVA254 was used as the main control parameter and the off-gas concentration of ozone was used as a limiting controller to ensure a sufficient mass transfer in the system. In conclusion, a suitable flow proportional base ozone dose valid for current water conditions has been identified, 10 mg/L. Differences in wastewater quality which heavily influence the ozonation process have been identified. Lastly, a control strategy for process control of the ozonation have been identified, designed and is ready for implementation.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / No Brasil, estudos de avaliaÃÃo de micropoluentes emergentes em matrizes ambientais como esgotos sanitÃrios e hospitalares, e corpos de Ãgua, ainda sÃo bastante incipientes, assim como a remoÃÃo desses compostos em EstaÃÃes de Tratamento de Esgotos (ETEs) de baixo custo como lagoas de estabilizaÃÃo, assim como em sistemas de lodos ativados e sistemas anaerÃbio-aerÃbio compactos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo geral investigar a presenÃa de micropoluentes em matrizes ambientais como esgotos sanitÃrios e hospitalares, e Ãgua superficial, avaliar a remoÃÃo destes compostos em ETEs de baixo custo e aplicar o processo de oxidaÃÃo avanÃada (POA) UV/H2O2 como opÃÃo de pÃs-tratamento. Os principais micropoluentes emergentes estudados foram: 2,4,6-triclorofenol, pentaclorofenol, cafeÃna (CAF), dipirona (DIP), diclofenaco de sÃdio (DCF), bis (2-etil-hexil) ftalato (DEHP), estrona (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), β-estradiol 17-acetato (EA2), 17α-etinilestradiol (EE2) e colesterol (COL). As amostras foram coletadas em ETEs localizadas em Fortaleza e em sua regiÃo metropolitana. Os corpos receptores investigados foram o Rio Maranguapinho e o Riacho Paupina. Para a prÃ-concentraÃÃo dos micropoluentes utilizou-se extraÃÃo em fase sÃlida (SPE) com cartuchos C-18 e extraÃÃo lÃquido-lÃquido (ELL). A SPE foi a tÃcnica mais eficiente na concentraÃÃo da maioria dos micropoluentes emergentes, e a ELL se mostrou a melhor tÃcnica para compostos organoclorados. Foram realizados estudos de otimizaÃÃo das condiÃÃes de detecÃÃo dos compostos pelo uso de tÃcnicas de cromatografia gasosa acoplada à espectrometria de massas (GC/MS). Foram identificados compostos farmacÃuticos e desreguladores endÃcrinos em todas as amostras de esgotos com as seguintes faixas de concentraÃÃes efluentes: CAF (3,0-15,8 μg/L), DIP (0,3 μg/L), DCF (1,9 μg/L), DEHP (0,01-8,5μg/L), E1 (0,04-1,7 μg/L), E2 (0,03-4,0 μg/L), EA2 (0,14-9,3 μg/L), EE2 (1,0 μg/L) e COL (0,01-6,2 μg/L). Nos dois corpos receptores estudados (Rio Maranguapinho e Riacho Paupina) foram identificados desreguladores endÃcrinos. Os tratamentos realizados pelas ETEs nÃo foram suficientes para remoÃÃo total de todos os micropoluentes estudados, no entanto, a eficiÃncia para a maioria dos compostos foi acima de 50%. Em se tratando da avaliaÃÃo em sistemas de lagoas de estabilizaÃÃo, o estudo revelou boas eficiÃncias de remoÃÃo em sistemas constituÃdos de lagoa anaerÃbia seguida de facultativa e de maturaÃÃo, sendo os menores valores de remoÃÃo alcanÃados quando uma Ãnica lagoa facultativa primÃria estava presente. A avaliaÃÃo do uso do POA por meio do planejamento fatorial multivariado revelou que as melhores condiÃÃes para remoÃÃo de micropoluentes emergentes foram pH Ãcido (pH 3), concentraÃÃo de perÃxido de hidrogÃnio acima de 400 mg/L e tempos de detenÃÃo hidrÃulica no reator acima de 50min. / In Brazil, studies evaluating emerging micropollutants in environmental matrices such as sewage and hospital wastewater, as well as surface waters, are still quite incipient as well as the removal of these compounds in low cost Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) such as stabilization ponds, as well as in activated sludge systems or anaerobic/aerobic compact systems. This work aimed to investigate the presence of micropollutants in environmental matrices such as sewage and hospital wastewaters, and in surface waters. Additionally, this study evaluated the removal of these compounds in low-cost WWTPs and studied the advanced oxidation process (AOP) â UV/H2O2 â as a post-treatment option. The main emerging micropollutants studied were: 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, pentachlorophenol, caffeine (CAF), dipyrone (DIP), sodium diclofenac (DCF), bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), estradiol acetate (EA2), 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) and cholesterol (CHO). The samples were collected from WWTPs located in Fortaleza and its metropolitan region. The receiving surface waters investigated were: Maranguapinho River and Paupina Creek. For the pre-concentration studies of micropollutants, solid phase extraction (SPE) with C-18 cartridges was used, as well as the liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) method. The SPE technique was the most efficient method in concentrating the majority of emerging micropollutants, and the LLE proved to be the best technique for organochlorine compounds. Optimization studies were performed to detect the ideal conditions to determine the compounds by using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) techniques. In all wastewater samples pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds were identified, and the range of effluent concentrations were: CAF (3.0-15.8 μg/L), DIP (0.3 μg/L), DCF (1.9 μg/L), DEHP (0.01-8.5μg/L), E1 (0.04-1.7 μg/L), E2 (0.03-4.0 μg/L), EA2 (0.14-9.3 μg/L), EE2 (1.0 μg/L) and CHO (0.01-6.2 μg/L). Endocrine disrupting compounds were identified in the Maranguapinho River and Paupina Creek. The wastewater treatment in the WWTPs was not enough for the complete removal of all micropollutants studied; however, the efficiency level for most of compounds was above 50%. Regarding the evaluation in stabilization ponds systems, the study revealed good removal of micropollutants in systems composed of anaerobic pond followed by facultative and maturation ponds, in which the lowest efficiency levels were verified when a single facultative pond was present. The evaluation of the AOP as a post-treatment option by multivariate factorial design showed that the optimal conditions for the removal of emerging micropollutants were acidic pH (pH 3), hydrogen peroxide concentration above 400 mg/L and hydraulic retention times in the reactor above 50 minutes.

Orientadores: Peterson Bueno de Moraes, Christiane de Arruda Rodrigues Ragnini / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Tecnologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-27T04:30:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza_EdivaldoLuisde_M.pdf: 3079610 bytes, checksum: a78db6078a721c74f963b944bae72f47 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: A sociedade e seus processos produtivos têm gerado e lançado quantidades elevadas e diversificadas de compostos orgânicos, inorgânicos e biológicos no meio ambiente. Juntamente com as emissões naturais, houve um grande acúmulo destes materiais nos diferentes compartimentos ambientais. A produção e o uso de medicamentos, como hormônios e antibióticos contribuíram muito para a ampliação deste quadro. Por serem persistentes não são totalmente metabolizados nos seres vivos e acabam sendo excretados e lançados em corpos receptores. Os mecanismos naturais de degradação e métodos de tratamento convencionais de efluentes não são suficientemente eficientes na remoção completa destes compostos; em função disso, é necessário o desenvolvimento e aplicação de tecnologias alternativas para a redução destes impactos. Entre estas tecnologias podemos citar os Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POA) que são mais eficientes para o tratamento destes tipos de efluentes. Objetivamos neste trabalho desenvolver, caracterizar e utilizar eletrodos nanoestruturados de TiO2 para a confecção de um reator fotoeletroquímico para a degradação do antibiótico amoxicilina e do citrato de sildenafil, este último, princípio ativo do medicamento Viagra®, submetidos à radiação UV e solar. Foram desenvolvidos eletrodos nanoestruturados com TiO2 sobre substrato de titânio, a partir de processos de anodização eletroquímica, na qual foram variados diferentes parâmetros que influenciaram nas características dos nanotubos de TiO2 desenvolvidos. Os nanotubos formados foram avaliados por Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura quanto ao comprimento, espessura de parede e homogeneidade de distribuição. Testou-se contra-eletrodos de platina, Anodo Dimensionalmente Estável (ADE), níquel, aço-inoxidável 304 e 316L e obteve-se nanotubos de TiO2 com comprimentos entre 100 e 650 nm. Observou-se na maioria dos eletrodos nanoestruturados uma distribuição homogênea dos nanotubos. Visando a obtenção de nanoestruturas mais fotoativas, realizou-se cristalização por aquecimento em estufa. Na cristalização dos nanotubos, as análises de Difratometria de Raios-X evidenciaram intenso sinal no ângulo 2? próximo a 25º para todas as amostras significando que os nanotubos de TiO2 se cristalizaram na fase anatase, a qual é mais fotoativa. A degradação de amoxicilina apresentou rendimento de aproximadamente 85% em um intervalo de 4 horas de tratamento, enquanto que o rendimento na degradação do citrato de sildenafil foi de aproximadamente 88%, para um volume de amostra de 160,0 mL etanol/água destilada à 20% V/V em Na2SO4 0,1 M, concentração do fármaco de 10,0 mg L-1, lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio, WUV=13 W/m2, disposição horizontal dos eletrodos, distância de 3,0 mm entre lâmpada e ânodo de TiO2, cátodo de platina em tela, tensão de 1,5 volts, anodo de titânio nanoestruturado obtido a partir de contra-eletrodo de ADE 70%TiO2/30%RuO2 com d = 5,0 mm a 700 rpm e t = 120 min, 2 horas de tratamento. As nanoestruturas apresentaram-se com baixa resistência mecânica em relação à aplicação de valores de potencial elétrico superiores a 1,5 V. No entanto, abaixo destes valores, as estruturas de TiO2 mostraram-se altamente estáveis em relação à durabilidade. A eletrólise apresentou eficiência insignificante na degradação do fármaco citrato de sildenafil, sendo então aplicado um potencial aos eletrodos para fotoassistir ao processo fotocatalítico o qual se mostrou fortemente dependente da drenagem eletrônica / Abstract: The modern society and its production processes have generated and released high amounts of synthetic organic compounds which accumulate in different environmental compartments. The production and use of drugs such as hormones and antibiotics have greatly contributed to the expansion of this problem. Due to persistent-profile of these drugs, they are not completely metabolized and the conventional Wastewater Treatment Plants are not fully effective for the removal of these compounds. Thus, the development and application of alternative technologies is needed. In the other hand, the Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) has been effective for the treatment of pharmaceutical residues. This work aimed to produce, characterize and use nanostructured TiO2 electrodes and an photoelectrochemical reactor for the degradation of the antibiotic amoxicillin and sildenafil citrate, the latter, the active ingredient of Viagra©. The experiments were carried out using ultraviolet (UV) and solar radiation. Nanostructured TiO2 electrodes were developed from titanium substrate by electrochemical anodization process in which the different parameters were varied in order to verify its influence on the length, thickness and uniformity of distribution of TiO2 nanotubes formed, evaluated by Scanning Electron Microscopy. It was tested different counter-electrodes such as platinum, dimensionally stable anode (DSA), nickel, stainless-steel 304 and stainless-steel 316L and were obtained TiO2 nanotubes with lengths between 100 and 650 nm. It was observed in most nanostructured electrodes a homogeneous distribution of the nanotubes. Also, in order to obtain nanostructures more photoactive, crystallization was performed by heating in an oven. After crystallization process, analysis of X-Ray diffraction showed intense signal at 2? close to 25º for all samples, meaning that the TiO2 nanotubes were crystallized in the anatase phase which is more photoactive. Photocatalytic experiments with the Amoxicillin solution resulted in approximately 85% of degradation in 4 hours of treatment, whereas the degradation of sildenafil citrate was about 88%. The samples consisted of 160.0 mL ethanol / distilled water at 20 % V/V in 0.1 M Na2SO4, drug concentration of 10.0 mg L-1. The experimental setup consisted of a mercury vapor lamp or a solar simulator, horizontal arrangement of the electrodes and a platinum screen cathode. It was applied 1.5 volts, distance of 3,0 mm between the lamp and TiO2 nanostructured anode, obtained from the anodization using a DSA (70%TiO2/30%RuO2) counter-electrode placed at 5.0 mm, under stirring of 700 rpm over 120 minutes. The nanostructures had low strength to the application of higher electrical potential values than 1.5 V. However, below this value the TiO2 structures were more stable and with greater durability. Electrolytic process had a negligible efficiency in the degradation of sildenafil citrate; thus the applied potential was more important to help the photocatalytic process, which is strongly dependent of the electronic drainage / Mestrado / Tecnologia e Inovação / Mestre em Tecnologia

Diploma thesis is focused on the choose of methods and optimalisation analysis procedure of selected pharmaceuticals (salicylic acid, ibuprofene, naproxene, ketoprofene and diclofenac) in surface and waste water by using gas chromatography with mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Solid-phase extraction (SPE) with Oasis HLB cartridges was used as an extraction method in this analysis. Extraction is followed by derivatization and their optimalization of selected pharmaceuticals. Derivatization and its optimalization were performed by two silylation reagens N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA) and N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA). Different volumes of derivatization reagents, different temperatures and different times were used during the procedure. The best combination is then used for analysis of real samples. Real samples of waste water were collected in sewage treatment plants in Brno – Modřice and real samples of surface water were collected from several rivers and one pond in region Moravia. This thesis also presents and tests SPE methods for extraction and concentration selected sulfonamide residues (sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfapyridine and sulfathiazole) from the aquatic environment.