In recent years, many countries have struggled with the fact that expenditures on health care are growing much faster than the overall level of wealth. Research objectives: 1) to conduct a meta-analysis of heparins by the means of their efficacy, safety parameters and treatment outcomes; 2) to conduct pharmacoepidemiological assessment of long-term heparins utilization in Lithuania; 3) to develop a pharmacoeconomic cost-minimization model for low-molecular-weight heparins based on reference pricing methodology; 4) to investigate heparins prescribing trends and to evaluate heparins prescription adherence to international clinical guidelines at a secondary level clinical hospital. Meta-analysis results showed that low-molecular-weight heparins could be considered interchangeable due to similar therapeutic profiles in some indications. In Lithuania consumption of heparins and corresponding costs were constantly increasing during the period of investigation; therefore it would be relevant to implement modern pharmacoeconomic methodologies to regulate costs. Cost-minimization model suggested that expenditures on this group of medicines could be decreased by nearly 70 percent. Analysis of pharmacoepidemiological study data confirmed that heparins prescription practices at the clinical hospital were insufficiently regulated. In addition this study conducted at the clinical hospital revealed non-compliance of heparins safety monitoring practices with clinical guidelines. / Pastaraisiais metais daugelyje šalių sveikatos priežiūros išlaidos augo daug greičiau nei bendras gerovės lygis, todėl yra nuolat diskutuojama, kaip šį išlaidų augimą reikėtų kontroliuoti. Darbo uždaviniai: 1) atlikti heparinų preparatų meta-analizę, palyginant jų efektyvumo ir saugumo parametrus bei gydymo baigtis; 2) atlikti heparinų preparatų ilgalaikio suvartojimo Lietuvoje farmakoepidemiologinį tyrimą; 3) suformuluoti farmakoekonominį kaštų mažinimo sprendimų modelį mažos molekulinės masės heparinų preparatų grupei, remiantis referentinės kainos metodika; 4) ištirti heparinų preparatų skyrimo tendencijas antrinio lygio klinikinėje ligoninėje ir palyginti heparinų preparatų skyrimo atitikimą tarptautinėms gairėms. Meta-analizės rezultatai parodė, jog mažos molekulinės masės heparinai gali būti tarpusavyje pa¬keičiami dėl analogiškų terapinių savybių tam tikrose indikacijose. Heparinų preparatų suvartojimas ir atitinkamos išlaidos tiriamuoju laikotarpiu Lietuvoje nuolat didėjo, todėl būtų aktualu taikyti šiuolaikines farmakoekonomines išlaidų reguliavimo metodikas. Pritaikius kaštų mažinimo modelį heparinų preparatų grupei, būtų galima sumažinti išlaidas šios grupės preparatams beveik 70 procentų. Farmakoepidemiologinio tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, jog heparinų preparatų skyrimo praktika klinikinėje ligoninėje buvo nepakankamai reglamentuota. Taip pat heparinų preparatų saugumo parametrų stebėjimo praktika ligoninėje neatitiko tarptautinių rekomendacijų.

Given financial constraints, drug manufacturers are required to provide pharmacoeconomic evaluations to demonstrate the value for money of their drug compared to current treatment when requesting reimbursement by publicly funded health care systems. This thesis is a retrospective examination of pharmacoeconomic evaluations submitted for review to the Common Drug Review process. Its purpose was to determine the pattern of adherence to guidelines, trends in methodological quality, and transparency, changes in the adoption and practice of sensitivity analysis and probabilistic methods, use of indirect treatment comparison, and identify methodological factors−determinants of recommendations. Using an instrument that was developed and tested, information from 201 pharmacoeconomic evaluations was collected and analysed. Pharmacoeconomic evaluations may have improved over time in terms of adherence, methodological quality, transparency, use of probabilistic sensitivity analysis and indirect treatment comparison. However, such improvements have been minimal and further efforts are needed to better improve pharmacoeconomic evaluations in the future.

Magister Scientiae - MSc (Pharmacy Administration and Policy Regulation) / Aim: The purpose of this research was to assess the validity of pharmacoeconomic evaluation in Egypt three years after the guideline was issued and analyse challenges and opportunities for improvement. Objectives: To conduct a literature review of pricing, medicine reimbursement, and pharmacoeconomic evaluation. Examine, in conjunction with relevant stakeholders, the progress of the pharmacoeconomic evaluation. To present examples of pharmacoeconomic evaluation deployment. To propose recommendations on how to optimize the pharmacoeconomic implementation. Methods: A literature review and a qualitative research method that was conducted using a semi-structured interview with stakeholders of the reimbursement process in Egypt. In addition, examples were analysed to determine the impact of pharmacoeconomic methods on medicine reimbursement in Egypt. Results: The Egyptian Pharmacoeconomic Evaluation Unit was established in 2013, it supports various reimbursement decisions, especially for new technologies. The unit evaluations depended mainly on the available international data. However, fragmentation of the health care system in Egypt is a major obstacle to progress. The guidelines are still non-compulsory for implementation, and accordingly some reimbursement committees do not consider its evaluation in its decision making. Conclusion and Recommendations: The pharmacoeconomic evaluation has demonstrated a good start in Egypt. To gain the full benefit of pharmacoeconomic evaluation, authorities need to consider reducing the complexity of health care system, setting clear strategies, building capabilities to improve pharmacoeconomic awareness; endorsing risk sharing strategy and building a proper health related information system along with creation of full Health Technology Assessment program. The above-mentioned recommendations could be associated together under the Universal Health Coverage road map that Egypt committed to achieve by 2030.

According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), over 21 million individuals in the United States have diabetes mellitus. Of those affected by the disease, most (between 90-95%) have the type 2 variety. It is estimated that nearly three-fourths of individuals with diabetes also suffer from hypertension. Hypertension is an insidious disease that can have devastating long-term consequences. Hypertension in patients with diabetes contributes to approximately 75% of all diabetes-related complications. Thus, the comorbidities of type 2 diabetes and hypertension are identified as being responsible for a myriad of vascular problems in affected patients. According to both the JNC 7 Report and the ADA guidelines, patients with diabetes and hypertension have demonstrated observable clinical benefit from use of the following antihypertensive drug classes: diuretics, beta-blockers, ACE Inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor blockers, and calcium-channel blockers. However, despite identification of the negative relationship between arterial hypertension/type 2 diabetes and vascular complications, uncertainty remains as to which pharmacological treatment would best prevent the frequent and costly complications in patients with these comorbidities. A Markov model utilizing both 1 st and 2 nd order Monte Carlo simulation was created to simulate the effects of each recommended drug class on the complications of stroke, myocardial infarction, the microvascular complication of nephropathy, and patient mortality. The present research was conducted with the belief that appropriate selection of an antihypertensive agent for the treatment of high blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes will minimize the occurrence of important cardiovascular and microvascular complications, thereby reducing the economic toll and increasing the life expectancy of patients plagued by these two disease states. The findings of the present work illustrate the cost and effectiveness of each therapeutic class of agents advocated for use in patients with type 2 diabetes and hypertension. Furthermore, the value of ACE Inhibitors compared to the other four drug classes espoused for use in this patient population clearly emerged. Ideally, the results of the current work will have the added benefit of partially eliminating the subjective value judgments that clinicians are required to make when deciding which pharmacotherapeutic alternative to initiate in a patient with both clinical conditions.

Student Number : 7909638 - MCom dissertation - School of Economics and Business Sciences - Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management / Healthcare, it can be argued, is a commodity that has a social constitution. The reason may be because healthcare is seen to have its foundation in socio-economic principles but has evolved through scientific study and business application into a profitable business. The delivery of healthcare in South Africa and in many parts of the world has come under immense scrutiny from policy-makers, high-volume purchasers, patient-consumers and the healthcare community. Arguments criticizing the high cost of healthcare delivery range from levelling the blame on one component (pharmaceuticals, medical fees, inadequate medical scheme cover to name a few examples) to a condemnation of the entire healthcare delivery system. The healthcare cost deliberation has also shifted to the centre stage in many public-policy debates and certainly caught the imagination of the public and journalists alike. It is an emotional debate. A review of related literature of the past fifty years (such as the Sainsbury Report (1967), the Kefauver Hearings (1963) and the Snyman Report (1962)), reveals that healthcare and the cost of healthcare delivery are some of the most frequently debated areas amongst the citizens and policy makers of both the developed and developing world. Pharmaceutical prices, more often than not, have been cast as the primary reason that the delivery cost of healthcare is so high. The methods used by pharmaceutical companies to promote their products – elaborate conventions, colourful brochures and generous amounts of free samples (certainly in previous years) to physicians may have contributed to this perception. Furthermore, the fact that the absolute cost of manufacturing a single capsule or tablet (including drugs that are no longer under patent) is a small fraction of the actual selling price also tends to raise the public ire. A greater understanding of pricing structures is necessary to appreciate this sector. The writer’s own experience in the area of healthcare that involves insurance for medical risks (medical schemes - the private healthcare funding system) suggests that it is crucial that pharmaceutical pricing structures be understood against this backdrop. Therefore the main reasons for undertaking this study are: i. to appreciate the pricing structures of pharmaceuticals to inform policy debates; ii. the current empirical evidence1 in the South African market has indicated that pharmaceuticals are unfairly priced and has prompted the Department of Health to introduce price regulations2. One goal of the research is to ascertain whether this is accurate; and iii. to obtain a broader knowledge base of the issue of pharmaceutical pricing practices in the South African healthcare market. It was with this approach that the area of pharmaceutical pricing and the topic was decided upon.

O levantamento do número de medicamentos inovadores licenciados no Brasil pela agência reguladora de medicamentos durante quatro anos, entre 1998 e 2001, mostrou 154 medicamentos inovadores (fármacos com nova estrutura molecular). A maioria deles (57,1% do total) foi concentrada em quatro classes terapêuticas: quimioterapia sistêmica (39 produtos), analgesia e anestesia (20), aparelho cardiovascular (15) e hormônios e anti-hormônios (14). Medicamentos inovadores para uso crônico foram lançados com preços mais altos com relação às opções pré-existentes de sua mesma classe terapêutica. Quando comparados apenas a fármacos com estrutura química semelhante, o custo foi menor. O custo estimado de tratamento por um mês variou entre 14% do salário mínimo (R$ 27,90) até 580% (R$ 1.159,80), portanto quase seis vezes. O estudo mostrou que no Brasil os medicamentos inovadores não são acessíveis para as famílias de baixa renda. / During the four-year period of 1998-2001, the Brazilian government licensed 154 medicines with new molecular entities. Most of them (57,1%) belong to only four therapeutic classes: anti-infectives (39 products), anesthetics and analgesics (20), cardiovascular (15) and hormones and anti-hormones (14). New medicines for chronic term use were launched with prices higher than the pre-existing competitors of the same therapeutic class. When compared with drugs resembling similar molecular structure, the price was lower. When compared to the minimal monthly wage, the estimated cost of on month of treatment was between 14% (R$ 27,90) and 580% (1159,80), therefore almost six times more. The study showed that in Brasil medicines with new molecular entities are not affordable to families with low income.

O levantamento do número de medicamentos inovadores licenciados no Brasil pela agência reguladora de medicamentos durante quatro anos, entre 1998 e 2001, mostrou 154 medicamentos inovadores (fármacos com nova estrutura molecular). A maioria deles (57,1% do total) foi concentrada em quatro classes terapêuticas: quimioterapia sistêmica (39 produtos), analgesia e anestesia (20), aparelho cardiovascular (15) e hormônios e anti-hormônios (14). Medicamentos inovadores para uso crônico foram lançados com preços mais altos com relação às opções pré-existentes de sua mesma classe terapêutica. Quando comparados apenas a fármacos com estrutura química semelhante, o custo foi menor. O custo estimado de tratamento por um mês variou entre 14% do salário mínimo (R$ 27,90) até 580% (R$ 1.159,80), portanto quase seis vezes. O estudo mostrou que no Brasil os medicamentos inovadores não são acessíveis para as famílias de baixa renda. / During the four-year period of 1998-2001, the Brazilian government licensed 154 medicines with new molecular entities. Most of them (57,1%) belong to only four therapeutic classes: anti-infectives (39 products), anesthetics and analgesics (20), cardiovascular (15) and hormones and anti-hormones (14). New medicines for chronic term use were launched with prices higher than the pre-existing competitors of the same therapeutic class. When compared with drugs resembling similar molecular structure, the price was lower. When compared to the minimal monthly wage, the estimated cost of on month of treatment was between 14% (R$ 27,90) and 580% (1159,80), therefore almost six times more. The study showed that in Brasil medicines with new molecular entities are not affordable to families with low income.

Les maladies cardiovasculaires (MCV) ont une prévalence élevée dans le monde et sont considérées comme la deuxième cause de mortalité chez la population canadienne. Les statines sont reconnues comme le traitement par excellence dans la prévention des MCV. Toutefois, les statines ne conviennent pas à tous les patients, potentiellement, en raison de la survenue d’effets secondaires et du manque d’efficacité. Avec l’avancement de la science, de nouvelles thérapies voient le jour dans le milieu cardiovasculaire. Les inhibiteurs de la proprotéine convertase subtilisine-kexine de type 9 PCSK9 (iPCSK9) constituent un traitement efficace pour réduire les évènements cardiovasculaires. Cependant, ces thérapies sont dispendieuses pour le système de santé. Cette thèse a pour but d’explorer la pharmacoéconomie des thérapies dispendieuses ayant démontrées une efficacité clinique importante dans le traitement préventif des MCV. La pharmacoéconomie est un outil d’évaluation destiné aux décideurs ayant comme objectif d’optimiser l’utilisation des ressources humaines et financières. Tout d’abord, dans un premier article, nous avons évalué l’efficacité maximale d’une thérapie hypolipémiante à partir des grilles de risque cardiovasculaires. Selon les résultats obtenus, l’efficacité maximale qu’il est raisonnable d’espérer a correspondu à une diminution du risque relatif variant entre 0,46 et 0,66. Ensuite, dans un deuxième article, nous avons estimé l’efficacité d’une thérapie dispendieuse dans un contexte différent puisque les études cliniques étaient en cours. Avec l’aide d’un modèle de Markov, la propension à payer a été fixée à deux seuils distincts, alors que le coût d’acquisition de la thérapie est demeuré fixe. Nos résultats ont estimé que pour atteindre les seuils de propension à payer de 50 000 $ et 100 000 $ par année de vie ajustée pour la qualité, l’efficacité devrait être de 0,58 et 0,78 respectivement. Finalement, l’étude randomisée contrôlée établissant l’efficacité clinique des iPCSK9 a été publiée. Nous avons donc pu évaluer le coût-utilité réel des iPCSK9 avec une nouvelle méthode de simulation, nommée Conditions et évènements discrètement intégrés. Cette étude est l’objet 2 de mon troisième article. Les résultats de cet article ont estimé que l’iPCSK9 n’est pas coût-efficace selon l’efficacité obtenue dans les études cliniques. En conclusion, suite aux résultats présentés dans cette thèse rédigée par articles, il serait envisageable d’intégrer dans le modèle pharmacoéconomique l’option d’un test génétique afin d’individualiser le traitement de chaque patient. / Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) have a high prevalence worldwide and are considered the second leading cause of death in the Canadian population. Statins are recognized to be the gold standard treatment in the prevention of CVD. However, statins are not suitable for all patients, potentially because of side effects and lack of efficacy. With the advancement of science, new therapies are emerging in the cardiovascular field. Inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (iPCSK9) have been shown to be effective in reducing cardiovascular events. However, these therapies are expensive. This article-based thesis aims to explore the pharmacoeconomics of expensive therapies that have demonstrated significant clinical efficacy in the preventive treatment of CVD. Pharmacoeconomics is an evaluation tool for decision-makers with the objective of optimizing the use of human and financial resources. In the first publication, we evaluated the maximum effectiveness of lipid-lowering therapy from cardiovascular risk grids. According to our results, this maximum expected benefit fluctuates between 0.46 and 0.66. In the second publication, we estimated the effectiveness of an expensive therapy. At the time of our second publication, the results of the randomized controlled trial evaluating the clinical efficacy of iPCSK9 had not been published yet. Therefore, we used a Markov model to estimate the necessary clinical efficacy of PCSK9 inhibitors to reach two arbitrarily selected willingness-to-pay (WTP) thresholds. Our results showed that an efficacy of 0.58 and 0.78 were necessary to reach WTP thresholds of $50,000 and $100,000 per quality-adjusted life years respectively. Once the clinical efficacy of iPCSK9 was published, we evaluated their cost-utility. This was the object of our third article and a new simulation method named Discretely Integrated Condition was used. Our results suggested that at the current price, the PCSK9 inhibitors were not cost-effective. Following the results presented in this article-based thesis, it would be of interest to integrate the option of a hypothetical genetic test into the pharmacoeconomic model. This genetic test would be able to identify good responders in order to optimize the treatment of each individual patient.