This thesis contains three main sections. In the first section, we examine methodologies to discriminate Type II protein kinase inhibitors from the Type I inhibitors. We have studied the structure of 55 Type II kinase inhibitors and have notice specific descriptive geometric features. Using this information we have developed a pharmacophore and a shape based screening approach. We have found that these methods did not effectively discriminate between the two inhibitor types used independently, but when combined in a consecutive way – pharmacophore search first, then shape based screening, we have found a method that successfully filtered out all Type I molecules. The effect of protonation states and using different conformer generators were studied as well. This method was then tested on a freely available database of decoy molecules and again shown to be discriminative. In the second section of the thesis, we implement and assess swarm-based docking methods. We implement a repulsive particle swarm optimization (RPSO) based conformational search approach into Autodock 3.05. The performance of this approach with different parameters was then tested on a set of 51 protein ligand complexes. The effect of using different factoring for the cognitive, social and repulsive terms and the importance of the inertia weight were explored. We found that the RPSO method gives similar performance to the particle swarm optimization method. Compared to the genetic algorithm approach used in Autodock 3.05, our RPSO method gives better results in terms of finding lower energy conformations. In the final, third section we have implemented a Monte Carlo (MC) based conformer searching approach into Gaussian03. This enables high level quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) potentials to be used in docking molecules in a protein active site. This program was tested on two Zn2+ ion-containing complexes, carbonic anhydrase II and cytidine deaminase. The effects of different QM region definitions were explored in both systems. A consecutive and a parallel docking approach were used to study the volume of the active site explored by the MC search algorithm. In case of the carbonic anhydrase II complex, we have used 1,2-difluorobenzene as a ligand to explore the favourable interactions within the binding site. With the cytidine deaminase complex, we have evaluated the ability of the approach to discriminate the native pose from other higher energy conformations during the exploration of the active site of the protein. We find from our initial calculations, that our program is able to perform a conformational search in both cases, and the effect of QM region definition is noticeable, especially in the description of the hydrophobic interactions within the carbonic anhydrase II system. Our approach is also able to find poses of the cytidine deaminase ligand within 1 Å of the native pose.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Given the significant disease burden caused by human coronaviruses, the discovery of an effective antiviral strategy is paramount, however there is still no effective therapy to combat infection. This thesis details the in silica exploration of ligand libraries to identify candidate lead compounds that, based on multiple criteria, have a high probability of inhibiting the 3 chymotrypsin-like protease (3CUro) of human coronaviruses. Atomistic models of the 3CUro were obtained from the Protein Data Bank or theoretical models were successfully generated by homology modelling. These structures served the basis of both structure- and ligand-based drug design studies. Consensus molecular docking and pharmacophore modelling protocols were adapted to explore the ZINC Drugs-Now dataset in a high throughput virtual screening strategy to identify ligands which computationally bound to the active site of the 3CUro . Molecular dynamics was further utilized to confirm the binding mode and interactions observed in the static structure- and ligand-based techniques were correct via analysis of various parameters in a IOns simulation. Molecular docking and pharmacophore models identified a total of 19 ligands which displayed the potential to computationally bind to all 3CUro included in the study. Strategies employed to identify these lead compounds also indicated that a known inhibitor of the SARS-Co V 3CUro also has potential as a broad spectrum lead compound. Further analysis by molecular dynamic simulations largely confirmed the binding mode and ligand orientations identified by the former techniques. The comprehensive approach used in this study improves the probability of identifying experimental actives and represents a cost effective pipeline for the often expensive and time consuming process of lead discovery. These identified lead compounds represent an ideal starting point for assays to confirm in vitro activity, where experimentally confirmed actives will be proceeded to subsequent studies on lead optimization.

Atmospheric nucleation is a process of phase transformation like liquid water transforming into solid or gas phase water, which serves as a significant impact on many atmospheric and technological processes. During the process of the atmospheric nucleation, certain 3D molecular models for atmospheric nucleation will be generated, which are main mixtures of water molecules and hexanol molecules. Analyzing these 3D molecular models can promote the understanding for the nucleation and growth of the particles and phases in a multi-component mixture, as well as for the changes in climate and weather. Therefore, the research for atmospheric nucleation can be transformed into the research for the 3D molecular visualizations and comparisons, which are the similarity calculations. Unfortunately, the research on understanding atmospheric nucleation processes is restricted due to the lack of efficient visual data exploration tools. In this paper, the issue of lacking efficient data visualization tools is tackled by implementing our own application to visualize the atmospheric nucleation. The similarity calculation for these 3D molecules is implemented in order to analyze and compare the atmospheric nucleation processes and molecular models. Admittedly, there are various 3D molecular similarity calculation algorithms, such as clique-detection algorithms and point matching, etc; however, these algorithms are specifically utilized in the fields of protein amino-acids and pharmacophore. Due to the large scale of the atmospheric nucleation data, GPU (Graphical Processing Units) is employed in order to significantly reduce the computation times. This is achieved by utilizing CUDA (Compute Uniform Device Architecture) technology which allows us to execute our algorithm in a parallel method. Furthermore, in this research, the knowledge of hypertree visualization is intended to be utilized to enhance the previously developed web-based visualization and analysis tool that allows remote users to effectively mine the wealth of particle-based nucleation simulation data. The research goal is to speed up knowledge discovery and improve users' productivity through effective data visualization technique and more friendly user interface design. Meanwhile, a feasible parallel computing solution is developed to overcome the slow response due to expensive large data pre-processing. The core research of my thesis is to calculate the similarity between the distinct 3D molecules.

La sida és una malaltia causada pel VIH, que ataca a les cèl·lules del sistema immunitari. Actualment s'estima que viuen uns 33 milions de persones infectades per aquest virus. La teràpia antiretroviral actual consisteix en combinacions de dues famílies de compostos: inhibidors de la transcriptasa inversa i inhibidors de la proteasa, ambdós dirigits a enzims específics produïts pel VIH. Una de les principals dificultats en el tractament antiretroviral és la ràpida evolució del virus, que li permet fer-se resistent als fàrmacs que s'utilitzen. Per tant, hi ha una necessitat contínua d'utilitzar nous fàrmacs anti­VIH en combinació amb els actuals, i haurien d'actuar preferentment en noves dianes del cicle de replicació del VIH. El descobriment dels cofactors cel·lulars implicats en l'entrada del VIH i una millor comprensió de les proteïnes de l'envolta que controlen el procés de fusió han renovat l'interès en les primeres etapes de la replicació del VIH com a dianes per a una intervenció terapèutica. L'entrada del VIH consta de 4 etapes interrelacionades: la unió del virus a la superfície cel·lular, la unió del virus al receptor CD4, la interacció del complex CD4-glicoproteïna de l'envolta amb el coreceptors d'entrada i la fusió virus-cèl·lula. Els principals coreceptors utilitzats pel VIH per a la seva entrada a la cèl·lula són els receptors de quimiocines CCR5 i CXCR4. En aquest àmbit s'han aprovat recentment dos nous fàrmacs, Fuzeon® (Hoffman-La Roche i Trimeris), que inhibeix la fusió del virus amb la cèl·lula, i Selzentry® (Pfizer), que és un antagonista de CCR5. S'han identificat agents que bloquegen CXCR4, entre els que destaca AMD3100. Tot i això, el seu desenvolupament s'ha abandonat per una toxicitat cardíaca i falta de biodisponibilitat oral, ambdues relacionades amb la seva elevada càrrega positiva a pH fisiològic. Per tant, es necessita disposar de nous inhibidors de la unió del VIH al coreceptor CXCR4 que solucionin aquests desavantatges. L'interès d'aquesta tesi és dissenyar una quimioteca combinatòria d'anàlegs al AMD3100 amb menor basicitat, que incorporin a la seva estructura les principals característiques d'aquest compost, un linker p-fenilenbismetilènic i sistemes heterocíclics. A partir de l'estructura dels compostos de la quimioteca dissenyada es desenvolupen i validen les rutes sintètiques necessàries per a la seva obtenció. A més, s'apliquen tècniques computacionals de selecció de diversitat per a explorar l'espai químic representat pels compostos de la quimioteca. A partir de les molècules actives identificades en aquest procés i inhibidors coneguts del coreceptor CXCR4 es desenvolupen models QSAR i farmacofòrics. Aquests models s'utilitzen per a realitzar un cribatge virtual de la resta de compostos de la quimioteca dissenyada i augmentar la probabilitat de seleccionar nous compostos amb activitat antiviral. Mitjançant aquest procediment s'han identificat nous inhibidors de CXCR4, un d'ells amb elevada activitat anti-VIH. A més, aquest compost només presenta quatre àtoms de nitrogen a la seva estructura, enfront dels vuit de l'AMD3100. / El sida es una enfermedad causada por el VIH, que ataca a las células del sistema inmunitario. Actualmente se estima que viven unos 33 millones de personas infectadas por este virus. La terapia antirretroviral actual consiste en combinaciones de dos familias de compuestos: los inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa y los inhibidores de la proteasa, ambos dirigidos a enzimas específicos producidos por el VIH. Sin embargo, una de las principales dificultades en el tratamiento antirretroviral es la rápida evolución del virus, que le permite hacerse resistente a los fármacos utilizados. Por lo tanto, hay una continua necesidad de usar nuevos fármacos anti-VIH en combinación con los actuales, que deberían actuar preferentemente en nuevas dianas del ciclo de replicación del VIH. El descubrimiento de los cofactores celulares implicados en la entrada del VIH y una mejor comprensión de las proteínas de la envoltura que controlan el proceso de fusión han renovado el interés en las primeras etapas de la replicación del VIH como dianas para una intervención terapéutica. La entrada del VIH consta de 4 etapas interrelacionadas: la unión del virus a la superficie celular, la unión del virus al receptor CD4, la interacción del complejo CD4­glicoproteína de la envoltura con los correceptores de entrada y la fusión virus-célula. Los principales correceptores utilizados por el VIH para su entrada en la célula son los receptores de quimiocinas CCR5 y CXCR4. En este ámbito se han aprobado recientemente dos nuevos fármacos, Fuzeon® (Hoffman-La Roche y Trimeris), que inhibe la fusión del virus con la célula, y Selzentry® (Pfizer), que es un antagonista de CCR5. Se han identificado agentes que bloquean CXCR4, entre los que destaca AMD3100. Sin embargo, su desarrollo se ha abandonado por una toxicidad cardiaca y falta de biodisponibilidad oral, ambas relacionadas con su elevada carga positiva a pH fisiológico. Por lo tanto se necesita disponer de nuevos inhibidores de la unión del VIH al receptor CXCR4 que solventen estas desventajas. El interés de la presente tesis es diseñar una quimioteca combinatoria de análogos al AMD3100 con menor basicidad, que incorporen en su estructura las principales características de este compuesto, un linker p­fenilenbismetilénico y sistemas heterocíclicos. A partir de la estructura de los compuestos de la quimioteca diseñada, se desarrollan y validan las rutas sintéticas necesarias para su obtención. Además, se aplican técnicas computacionales de selección de diversidad para explorar el espacio químico representado por los compuestos de la quimioteca. A partir de los compuestos activos identificados en este proceso e inhibidores conocidos del correceptor CXCR4 se desarrollan modelos QSAR y farmacofóricos. Estos modelos se utilizan para realizar un cribado virtual del resto de compuestos de la quimioteca diseñada y aumentar así la probabilidad de seleccionar nuevos compuestos con actividad antiviral. Mediante este procedimiento, se han identificado nuevos inhibidores de CXCR4, uno de ellos con elevada actividad anti-VIH. Además, este compuesto sólo presenta cuatro átomos de nitrógeno en su estructura frente a los ocho del AMD3100. / AIDS is a disease of the immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Today, about 33 million people live with this virus. Current antiretroviral therapies consist of combinations of two compound families: reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors, both directed to specific enzymes produced by the HIV. One of the major drawbacks in this antiretroviral treatment is drug resistance, produced by the rapid evolution of the virus. Hence there is a need to develop new anti-HIV drugs which should preferably act on new stages in HIV's life cycle. The discovery of cellular cofactors involved in the entry of HIV to host cells and a better comprehension of envelope proteins controlling the fusion process have renewed the interest in early steps of HIV replication as targets for therapeutic intervention. HIV entry to the cell can be dissected into 4 interrelated steps: virus attachment to the cell surface, virus binding to the CD4 receptor, interaction of the CD4-envelope glycoprotein complex with entry coreceptors and virus-cell fusion. The main HIV entry coreceptors are chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4. In this context, two new drugs have recently been approved, Fuzeon® (Hoffman-La Roche and Trimeris), that blocks fusion of HIV with the cell, and Selzentry® (Pfizer), a CCR5 antagonist. Agents that block CXCR4 have also been identified, with AMD3100 as lead compound. However, the development of this compound has been discontinued due to cardiac toxicity and lack of oral bioavailability related to its high positive charge at physiological pH. Therefore, there is a need to develop new CXCR4 coreceptor inhibitors that will solve these limitations. The aim of this thesis is the design of a combinatorial library of AMD3100 analogues with lower basicity while preserving the main structural features of AMD3100, a p­phenylenic linker and heterocyclic systems. Synthetic routes for these compounds have been developed and validated. Moreover, computational diversity selection techniques have been applied to explore the chemical space represented by the library. Active compounds identified by this process and known CXCR4 inhibitors have been used in QSAR and pharmacophore modelling. Then, virtual screening of the rest of compounds in the library with these models has been applied to increase the probability of selecting new active compounds. This has led to the identification of new CXCR4 inhibitors, one of them showing high anti-HIV activity. Furthermore, the structure of this compound only includes four nitrogen atoms, in contrast to the eight in AMD3100.

Thrombosis is the most important pathological process underlying many cardiovascular diseases, which are responsible for high mortality worldwide. In this theses the computer-aided design of new anti-thrombotic agents able to inhibit two types of receptors located on the surface of the platelets has been applied. The first one - αIIbβ3 - is responsible for the interaction of activated platelets with fibrinogen to form clots, whereas the second one - thromboxane A2 - is responsible for platelet activation by one of agonists excreted by activated platelets. To achieve this, different types of models have been developed using experimentally available information and structure of protein-ligand complexes. This concerns: QSAR models, structure-based and ligand-based 3D pharmacophore models, 2D pharmacophore models, shape-based and molecular field-based models. The ensemble of the developed models were used in virtual screening. This study resulted in suggestion of new potential antagonists of αIIbβ3 and thromboxane A2 receptors. Suggested antagonists of αIIbβ3 able to bind either open or closed form of the receptor have been synthesized and tested experimentally. Experiments show that they display high activity; moreover some of theoretically designed compounds are more efficient than Tirofiban - the commercialized drug molecule. The recommended antagonists of thromboxane A2 receptor have been already synthesized but biological tests have not been completed yet.

No description available.

Com o objetivo de buscar e identificar novo(s) inibidor(es) da cruzaína uma cisteíno-protease do Trypanosoma cruzi, o agente etiológico da doença de Chagas foram propostos, validados e, a seguir, aplicados sobre a biblioteca de compostos ZINC (3.294.714 compostos), dois modelos de virtual screening (Modelos I e II). Os modelos de virtual screening propostos, contendo seqüências de filtros físicoquímicos, farmacofóricos, de docking e de seleção por inspeção visual, foram construídos a partir de informações de 13 complexos da cruzaína e de 20 complexos de outras cisteínoprotease, cujas estruturas estão disponíveis no PDB. Numa primeira etapa, o reconhecimento detalhado das características estruturais da cruzaína foi realizado por inspeção visual; pelos campos de interação molecular, gerados pelo programa GRID; pela identificação das propriedades de interação molecular na superfície da cavidade, geradas pelo programa CA VBASE e; por simulações de dinâmica molecular. O Modelo I de virtual screeníng - obtido a partir do reconhecimento das estruturas dos 13 complexos da cruzaína depositadas no PDB - foi aplicado sobre o ZINC, selecionando 10 compostos, dos quais 6 compostos foram adquiridos e submetidos ao teste de inibição enzimática da cruzaína, para a validação experimental do modelo. Observou-se que 3 destes compostos (ZINC02470662, ZINC02682879 e ZINC03192044, respectivamente) não mostraram inibição significativa da cruzaína, nas condições experimentais utilizadas, até a concentração de 7 mM, enquanto que os 3 restantes (ZINC02663001, ZINC01936854 e ZINC03326243, respectivamente) apresentaram inibição enzimática inespecífica, sugerindo que estes últimos agem pelo mecanismo promíscuo. O mecanismo promíscuo de inibição enzimática, foi verificado pela adição de 0,1% Triton X-100 no ensaio enzimático, observando-se a correspondente perda de inibição da cruzaína. Para estes compostos, a confirmação do mecanismo promíscuo foi feita observando-se a perda de inibição da enzima, após o aumento em dez vezes da concentração da cruzaína no ensaio enzimático. O Modelo II - obtido a partir do reconhecimento das estruturas dos 13 complexos da cruzaína e dos 20 complexos de outras cisteíno-proteases, identificadas na busca por cavidades similares à cruzaína - foi aplicado sobre o banco de dados ZINC,selecionando 55 compostos dos quais 19 foram adquiridos e submetidos ao teste de inibição enzimática da cruzaína, para validação experimental do modelo. Observou-se que o composto ZINC01794422 apresentou inibição específica da enzima com constante de inibição no valor de Ki = 21 µM, enquanto que os demais 18 compostos não mostraram inibição significativa, nas condições experimentais utilizadas, até a concentração de 592 µM. O mecanismo promíscuo de inibição enzimática não foi observado, uma vez que todos os testes foram realizados com 0,1% de Triton X-100. O Modelo II identificou, ainda, mais dois inibidores da cruzaína (ZINC04899534 e ZINC01547017) que, por serem estruturalmente semelhantes aos utilizados na construção do modelo e já terem sido descritos na literatura, não foram adquiridos ou testados nos ensaios enzimáticos. Considerando apenas o novo inibidor identificado, o Modelo II apresentou uma taxa de acerto de 5,3%. Este valor esta de acordo com as taxas de acerto encontradas na literatura que variam entre 1 a 50% . / In order to search and identify new cruzain inhibitor(s) - a cysteine-protease of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease - two virtual screening schemes(Models I and II) were proposed, validated- and applied to the ZINC database (3.294.714 compounds). The proposed virtual screening models, bearing a sequence of different physicalchemical, pharmacophore and docking filters, as well as a visual inspection filter, were built from information taken from 13 cruzain complexes and from 20 complexes of other cysteine proteases, having their structures available in PDB. In a first step, a detailed recognition of the cruzain structural features and characteristics was performed through visual inspection of the enzyme environment; followed by the analysis of GRID generated molecular interaction fields; through the identification of molecular interaction properties exposed at the enzyme cavity surface, generated by the CAVBASE program; and by molecular dynamics simulations. The virtual screening Model I, - generated from the structural characteristics recognized from 13 PDB cruzain complexes - when applied to the ZINC database selected 10 compounds. For the experimental validation ofthe model, six ofthese compounds have been acquired and were tested as cruzain inhibitors. It was observed that three of the tested compounds (ZINC02470662, ZINC02682879 and ZINC03192044, respectively) did not show any significant cruzain inhibition, up to 7 mM. Meanwhile the other three tested compounds (ZINC02663001, ZINC01936854 and ZINC03326243, respectively) showed an unspecific cruzain inhibition, suggesting that an enzyme inhibition by promiscuous mechanism occurred. This mechanism was verified by the addition of 0.1% Triton X-100 on the enzymatic assay with a concomitant loss of cruzain inhibition activity. For these compounds, the confirmation of the promiscuous mechanism was also done, observing the loss of enzyme inhibition, after a ten times increase in the cruzain concentration on the enzymatic assay. The virtual screenmg Model II - generated from the structural characteristics recognized from 13 cruzain complexes and 20 complexes of other cysteine proteases, that have been identified on a search for cavities similar to cruzain - selected 55 compounds, when applied to the ZINC database. In order to experimentally validate the model, nineteen compounds have been acquired and were tested as cruzain inhibitors. It has been observed that one compound, ZINC01794422, showed a specific cruzain inhibition (Ki = 21 µM), while the other eighteen showed no significant inhibition, up to 592 µM concentration. The promiscuous mechanism of enzymatic inhibition was not observed, since 0.1% of Triton X-100 was added in ali assays. Additionally, Model II identified two other cruzain inhibitors (ZINC04899534 and ZINC01547017). However, these compounds have not been acquired or tested, since they are known cruzain inhibitors - already described in the literature and are structurally similar to the inhibitors used in the construction of the mode!. Referring to new inhibitors found, Model II showed a hit rate of 5,3%. This value is in agreement with those found in the literature, which ranges from 1 to 50%.

Els inhibidors d'entrada del VIH han sorgit recentment com una nova generació de fàrmacs antiretrovirals, els quals bloquegen la unió del virus als co-receptors de membrana CXCR4 i CCR5. S'han desenvolupat diverses molècules petites antagonistes d'aquests co-receptors, algunes de les quals estan actualment en fase d'assaig clínic. No obstant això, donat que no existeixen estructures cristal·logràfiques per aquests co-receptors proteics, és necessari analitzar els modes d'unió d'inhibidors coneguts a la cavitat d'unió extracel·lular dels co-receptors mitjançant experiments de mutagènesi dirigida i estudis computacionals. En general, l'objectiu d'aquestes aproximacions computacionals és cribar un gran nombre de compostos candidats a fàrmacs ràpidament. El cribatge virtual s'ha convertit recentment en un complement útil dels mètodes de cribatge experimentals high-throughput screening per a grans llibreries de compostos. Per tant, en aquesta tesi s'ha portat a terme un protocol de cribatge virtual, mitjançant aproximacions basades en el receptor i en lligands actius coneguts, amb la finalitat de trobar antagonistes de CXCR4 i CCR5 que puguin servir com a potencials inhibidors d'entrada del VIH.Per al cribatge virtual basat en el receptor, s'han millorat els models dels co-receptors CXCR4 i CCR5 construïts a la secció de disseny molecular de l'IQS, i s'han portat a terme assajos preliminars de mode d'unió utilitzant aquests models i lligands coneguts d'elevada afinitat. Així mateix, s'ha analitzat el comportament en el cribatge virtual i en el post-processat de resultats de docking de diferents fingerprints d'interacció en comparació amb els resultats obtinguts per un nou fingerprint d'interacció (APIF) desenvolupat a la secció de disseny molecular de l'IQS.Per al cribatge virtual basat en lligands, s'han comparat models farmacofòrics i diverses aproximacions basades en la forma i propietats moleculars utilitzant lligands d'elevada afinitat com a molècules de referència. A més, s'ha desenvolupat una nova aproximació basada en la forma molecular, la qual s'ha utilitzat per a estudiar en profunditat la hipòtesi de la multi-regió d'unió de la cavitat d'unió extracel·lular del co-receptor CCR5.Tots els mètodes, ja siguin basats en el receptor o en lligands coneguts, s'han aplicat en primer lloc de manera retrospectiva utilitzant una extensa base de dades d'inhibidors de CXCR4/CCR5 i suposats inactius, similars en propietats als actius, recopilada en aquesta tesi. Per a cada receptor, la quimioteca ha estat cribada utilitzat inhibidors coneguts, S'han analitzat els factors d'enriquiment i la diversitat a les llistes finals de hits. A més, s'han portat a terme anàlisis ROC per a ambdós inhibidors de CXCR4 i CCR5 amb la finalitat de comparar l'habilitat del nou algoritme basat en la igualtat de formes de lligands amb la resta d'aproximacions de cribatge utilitzades.Una vegada validades les diferents aproximacions de cribatge i seleccionats els millors paràmetres per a cadascuna d'elles, s'han aplicat les eines de cribatge virtual de manera prospectiva sobre una quimioteca combinatòria dissenyada a la secció de disseny molecular de l'IQS, així com tècniques de disseny de novo de lligands per tal d'identificar nous bloquejadors de l'entrada del VIH a les cèl·lules. / Los inhibidores de entrada del VIH han surgido recientemente como una nueva generación de fármacos antiretrovirales, los cuales bloquean la unión del virus con los co-receptores de membrana CXCR4 y CCR5. Se han desarrollado diversas moléculas pequeñas antagonistas de estos co-receptores, algunas de las cuales están actualmente en fase de ensayo clínico. Sin embargo, dado que no existen estructuras cristalográficas para estos co-receptores proteicos, es necesario analizar los modos de unión de inhibidores conocidos a la cavidad de unión extracelular de los co-receptores mediante experimentos de mutagénesis dirigida y estudios computacionales. En general, el objetivo de estas aproximaciones computacionales es cribar un gran número de compuestos candidatos a fármacos rápidamente. El cribado virtual se ha convertido recientemente en un complemento útil de los métodos de cribado experimentales high-throughput screening para grandes librerías de compuestos. Por lo tanto, en esta tesis se ha llevado a cabo un protocolo de cribado virtual, mediante aproximaciones basadas en el receptor y en ligandos activos conocidos, con el fin de encontrar antagonistas de CXCR4 y CCR5 que puedan servir como potenciales inhibidores de entrada del VIH.Para el cribado virtual basado en el receptor, se han mejorado los modelos de los co-receptores CXCR4 y CCR5 construidos en la sección de diseño molecular del IQS, y se han llevado a cabo ensayos preliminares de modo de unión utilizando estos modelos y ligandos conocidos de elevada afinidad. Asimismo, se ha analizado el comportamiento en el cribado virtual y en el post-procesado de resultados de docking de diferentes fingerprints de interacción en comparación con los resultados obtenidos por un nuevo fingerprint de interacción (APIF) desarrollado en la sección de diseño molecular del IQS.Para el cribado virtual basado en ligandos, se han comparado modelos farmacofóricos y diversas aproximaciones basadas en la forma y propiedades moleculares utilizando ligandos de elevada afinidad como moléculas de referencia. Además, se ha desarrollado una nueva aproximación basada en la forma molecular, la cual se ha utilizado para estudiar en profundidad la hipótesis de la multi-región de unión de la cavidad de unión extracelular del co-receptor CCR5.Todos los métodos, ya sean basados en el receptor o en ligandos conocidos, se han aplicado en primer lugar de manera retrospectiva utilizando una extensa base de datos de inhibidores de CXCR4/CCR5 y supuestos inactivos, similares en propiedades a los activos, recopilada en esta tesis. Para cada receptor, la quimioteca ha sido cribada utilizando inhibidores conocidos, Se han analizado los factores de enriquecimiento y la diversidad en las listas finales de hits. Además, se han llevado a cabo análisis ROC para ambos inhibidores de CXCR4 y CCR5 con el fin de comparar la habilidad del nuevo algoritmo basado en la igualdad de formas de ligandos con el resto de aproximaciones de cribado utilizadas.Una vez validadas las diferentes aproximaciones de cribado y seleccionados los mejores parámetros para cada una de ellas, se han aplicado las herramientas de cribado virtual de manera prospectiva sobre una quimioteca combinatoria diseñada en la sección de diseño molecular del IQS, así como técnicas de diseño de novo de ligandos para identificar nuevos bloqueadores de la entrada del VIH a las células. / HIV entry inhibitors have emerged as a new generation of antiretroviral drugs that block viral fusion with the CXCR4 and CCR5 membrane co-receptors. Several small molecule antagonists for these co-receptors have been developed, some of which are currently in clinical trials. However, because no crystal structures for the co-receptor proteins are available, the binding modes of the known inhibitors within the co-receptor extracellular pockets need to be analyzed by means of site-directed mutagenesis and computational experiments. Generally, the objective of these computational approaches is to screen large numbers of candidate drug compounds rapidly. Virtual screening has recently become a useful complement to laboratory-based high-throughput screening methods for large libraries of compounds. Hence, in this thesis, a virtual screening protocol, using several receptor-based and ligand-based approaches, has been performed to find CXCR4 and CCR5 antagonists that could potentially serve as HIV entry inhibitors.For receptor-based virtual screening, homology models of CXCR4 and CCR5 co-receptors built in our research group have been improved, and preliminary binding mode analyses using these models and high affinity known ligands have been carried out. Also, the performance in virtual screening and docking post-processing of different interaction fingerprints, compared to the results obtained with a new interaction fingerprint (APIF) developed in our research group, has been analysed.For ligand-based virtual screening, pharmacophore modelling and several shape-based and property-based molecular comparison approaches have been compared, using high-affinity ligands as query molecules. Also, a novel consensus shape-based virtual screening approach has been developed and used to investigate and add further evidence for multiple binding sites within the CCR5 extracellular pocket hypothesis.All the receptor-based and ligand-based methods have been firstly applied in a retrospective virtual screening, using a large database of known CXCR4/CCR5 inhibitors and similar presumed inactive molecules assembled in this thesis. For each receptor, the library has been queried using known binders, and the enrichment factors and diversity of the resulting virtual hit lists have been analyzed. Moreover, receiver-operator-characteristic analyses for both CXCR4 and CCR5 inhibitors have been carried out in order to compare the performance of the new consensus shape matching algorithm with the other screening approaches used. Once the different virtual screening approaches have been validated and the best parameters for each one have been selected, prospective virtual screening of a combinatorial library designed by our research group and de novo design methods have been applied to identify new HIV entry blockers.

Com o objetivo de buscar e identificar novo(s) inibidor(es) da cruzaína uma cisteíno-protease do Trypanosoma cruzi, o agente etiológico da doença de Chagas foram propostos, validados e, a seguir, aplicados sobre a biblioteca de compostos ZINC (3.294.714 compostos), dois modelos de virtual screening (Modelos I e II). Os modelos de virtual screening propostos, contendo seqüências de filtros físicoquímicos, farmacofóricos, de docking e de seleção por inspeção visual, foram construídos a partir de informações de 13 complexos da cruzaína e de 20 complexos de outras cisteínoprotease, cujas estruturas estão disponíveis no PDB. Numa primeira etapa, o reconhecimento detalhado das características estruturais da cruzaína foi realizado por inspeção visual; pelos campos de interação molecular, gerados pelo programa GRID; pela identificação das propriedades de interação molecular na superfície da cavidade, geradas pelo programa CA VBASE e; por simulações de dinâmica molecular. O Modelo I de virtual screeníng - obtido a partir do reconhecimento das estruturas dos 13 complexos da cruzaína depositadas no PDB - foi aplicado sobre o ZINC, selecionando 10 compostos, dos quais 6 compostos foram adquiridos e submetidos ao teste de inibição enzimática da cruzaína, para a validação experimental do modelo. Observou-se que 3 destes compostos (ZINC02470662, ZINC02682879 e ZINC03192044, respectivamente) não mostraram inibição significativa da cruzaína, nas condições experimentais utilizadas, até a concentração de 7 mM, enquanto que os 3 restantes (ZINC02663001, ZINC01936854 e ZINC03326243, respectivamente) apresentaram inibição enzimática inespecífica, sugerindo que estes últimos agem pelo mecanismo promíscuo. O mecanismo promíscuo de inibição enzimática, foi verificado pela adição de 0,1% Triton X-100 no ensaio enzimático, observando-se a correspondente perda de inibição da cruzaína. Para estes compostos, a confirmação do mecanismo promíscuo foi feita observando-se a perda de inibição da enzima, após o aumento em dez vezes da concentração da cruzaína no ensaio enzimático. O Modelo II - obtido a partir do reconhecimento das estruturas dos 13 complexos da cruzaína e dos 20 complexos de outras cisteíno-proteases, identificadas na busca por cavidades similares à cruzaína - foi aplicado sobre o banco de dados ZINC,selecionando 55 compostos dos quais 19 foram adquiridos e submetidos ao teste de inibição enzimática da cruzaína, para validação experimental do modelo. Observou-se que o composto ZINC01794422 apresentou inibição específica da enzima com constante de inibição no valor de Ki = 21 µM, enquanto que os demais 18 compostos não mostraram inibição significativa, nas condições experimentais utilizadas, até a concentração de 592 µM. O mecanismo promíscuo de inibição enzimática não foi observado, uma vez que todos os testes foram realizados com 0,1% de Triton X-100. O Modelo II identificou, ainda, mais dois inibidores da cruzaína (ZINC04899534 e ZINC01547017) que, por serem estruturalmente semelhantes aos utilizados na construção do modelo e já terem sido descritos na literatura, não foram adquiridos ou testados nos ensaios enzimáticos. Considerando apenas o novo inibidor identificado, o Modelo II apresentou uma taxa de acerto de 5,3%. Este valor esta de acordo com as taxas de acerto encontradas na literatura que variam entre 1 a 50% . / In order to search and identify new cruzain inhibitor(s) - a cysteine-protease of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease - two virtual screening schemes(Models I and II) were proposed, validated- and applied to the ZINC database (3.294.714 compounds). The proposed virtual screening models, bearing a sequence of different physicalchemical, pharmacophore and docking filters, as well as a visual inspection filter, were built from information taken from 13 cruzain complexes and from 20 complexes of other cysteine proteases, having their structures available in PDB. In a first step, a detailed recognition of the cruzain structural features and characteristics was performed through visual inspection of the enzyme environment; followed by the analysis of GRID generated molecular interaction fields; through the identification of molecular interaction properties exposed at the enzyme cavity surface, generated by the CAVBASE program; and by molecular dynamics simulations. The virtual screening Model I, - generated from the structural characteristics recognized from 13 PDB cruzain complexes - when applied to the ZINC database selected 10 compounds. For the experimental validation ofthe model, six ofthese compounds have been acquired and were tested as cruzain inhibitors. It was observed that three of the tested compounds (ZINC02470662, ZINC02682879 and ZINC03192044, respectively) did not show any significant cruzain inhibition, up to 7 mM. Meanwhile the other three tested compounds (ZINC02663001, ZINC01936854 and ZINC03326243, respectively) showed an unspecific cruzain inhibition, suggesting that an enzyme inhibition by promiscuous mechanism occurred. This mechanism was verified by the addition of 0.1% Triton X-100 on the enzymatic assay with a concomitant loss of cruzain inhibition activity. For these compounds, the confirmation of the promiscuous mechanism was also done, observing the loss of enzyme inhibition, after a ten times increase in the cruzain concentration on the enzymatic assay. The virtual screenmg Model II - generated from the structural characteristics recognized from 13 cruzain complexes and 20 complexes of other cysteine proteases, that have been identified on a search for cavities similar to cruzain - selected 55 compounds, when applied to the ZINC database. In order to experimentally validate the model, nineteen compounds have been acquired and were tested as cruzain inhibitors. It has been observed that one compound, ZINC01794422, showed a specific cruzain inhibition (Ki = 21 µM), while the other eighteen showed no significant inhibition, up to 592 µM concentration. The promiscuous mechanism of enzymatic inhibition was not observed, since 0.1% of Triton X-100 was added in ali assays. Additionally, Model II identified two other cruzain inhibitors (ZINC04899534 and ZINC01547017). However, these compounds have not been acquired or tested, since they are known cruzain inhibitors - already described in the literature and are structurally similar to the inhibitors used in the construction of the mode!. Referring to new inhibitors found, Model II showed a hit rate of 5,3%. This value is in agreement with those found in the literature, which ranges from 1 to 50%.