Introdução: Apneia Obstrutiva do Sono (AOS) é prevalente em estados edematosos, especialmente em pacientes em hemodiálise (HD). Uma vez que o deslocamento noturno de fluidos (DNF) acarreta piora da AOS, nós elaboramos a hipótese de que a interferência na redistribuição de fluidos pelo uso de meias elásticas compressivas (MEC) atenuaria a gravidade da AOS, por mecanismos diferentes em comparação à terapia padrão para AOS, a pressão positiva em vias aéreas (CPAP). Métodos: este é um estudo randomizado e cross-over, que incluiu 14 pacientes dialíticos com AOS (índice de apneia/hipopneia - IAH > 5 eventos/hora) em exame de polissonografia (PSG), que era realizada em três momentos: basal, titulação de CPAP e após uma semana de uso diário de MEC. Circunferência cervical (CC), bioimpedância elétrica segmentar e variabilidade de frequência cardíaca (VFC) foram avaliadas antes e após cada exame de PSG. Resultados: A idade média foi 53±9 anos (57% de homens) e o índice de massa corporal foi 29,7±6,8 Kg/m². O IAH foi reduzido de 20,8 (14,2; 39,6) no exame basal para 7,9 (2,8; 25,4) durante titulação de CPAP e para 16,7 (3,5; 28,9) eventos/hora após uso de MEC (CPAP vs. basal, p=0,004; MEC vs. basal, p=0,017; e CPAP vs. MEC, p=0.017). Comparando basal, CPAP e MEC, o conteúdo de água noturna em membros inferiores foi menor com MEC (p=0,04), enquanto a água intracelular noturna em tronco foi maior (p=0,03). DNF basal, com CPAP e MEC foi de -183±72, -343±220, e -290±213ml, respectivamente (p=0,006). Houve aumento da circunferência cervical durante a noite durante o exame basal (0,7±0,4 cm), mas houve redução dessa circunferência após titulação com CPAP (-1,0±0,4 cm) e após uso de MEC (-0,4±0,8 cm) (CPAP vs. basal, p<0.0001; MEC vs. basal, p=0.001; CPAP vs. MEC, p=0.01). VFC, avaliada pelos componentes de alta e baixa frequência, demonstrou menor ativação simpática durante o exame de titulação de CPAP: OR: 11 (95% CI: 1,06 - 114,2), p=0,025, mas não com MEC: OR: 7,8 (95% CI: 0,75 - 82,2), p=0,059. Conclusões: tanto o CPAP quanto MEC melhoraram AOS em pacientes em HD, mas por mecanismos distintos: enquanto o CPAP reduziu o edema de vias aéreas superiores, ao exercer pressão local, o uso de MEC reduziu o DNF, ao evitar retenção de fluidos em membros inferiores, acumulando água no componente intracelular do tronco. Ativação simpática foi somente reduzida com uso de CPAP. / Background: Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is prevalent in edematous states, notably in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Once overnight fluid shift (OFS) augments OSA, we hypothesized that interfering in fluid redistribution by wearing compression stockings (CS) would attenuate OSA severity by different mechanisms in comparison to the standard treatment to OSA, the positive airway pressure (CPAP). Methods: This is a randomized crossover study that included 14 dialytic patients with OSA (apnea/hypopnea index - AHI >5 events/hour) by polysomnography (PSG), which was performed in three moments: at baseline, for CPAP titration, and one week after daily wearing of CS. Neck circumference (NC), segmental bioelectrical impedance and heart rate variability (HRV) were assessed before and after each PSG. Results: Mean age was 53±9 years (57% men) and body mass index was 29.7±6.8 kg/m2. AHI decreased from 20.8 (14.2; 39.6) at baseline to 7.9 (2.8; 25.4) during CPAP titration and to 16.7 (3.5; 28.9) events/hour after wearing CS (CPAP vs. baseline, p=0.004; CS vs. baseline, p=0.017; and CPAP vs. CS, p=0.017). Comparing baseline, CPAP and CS, nocturnal lower limbs water content was lower with CS (p=0.04), while nocturnal intracellular trunk water was higher (p=0.03). OFS at baseline, CPAP and CS was -183±72, -343±220, and -290±213ml, respectively (p=0.006). Overnight NC variation increased at baseline (0.7±0.4 cm), but decreased after CPAP titration (-1.0±0.4 cm) and while wearing CS (-0.4±0.8 cm) (CPAP vs. baseline, p<0.0001; CS vs. baseline, p=0.001; CPAP vs. CS, p=0.01). HRV, assessed by both high and low frequency components, showed a lower sympathetic activation during CPAP titration: OR: 11 (95% CI: 1.06 - 114.2), p=0.025, but not with CS: OR: 7,8 (95% CI: 0.75 - 82.2), p=0.059 Conclusions: Both CPAP and CS improved OSA in HD patients by different mechanisms: while CPAP reduced edema in upper airways by exerting local pressure, wearing CS reduced OFS by avoiding fluid retention in the legs, accumulating water in the intracellular component of the trunk. Sympathetic activation was decreased only with CPAP.

The traditional way of estimating the formant frequencies from articulatory data presupposes knowledge of how the vocal tract cross-sectional area varies for a given articulatory shape (Fant 1960/1970). Accordingly, in order to derive the formant pattern of a given articulation, the three-dimensional shape of the vocal tract (VT) needs to be known. In the past cross-sectional areas have typically been derived by means of ‘d-to-A rules’ that use the mid-sagittal cross-distance d at each point along the VT to produce a corresponding cross-sectional area A. X-ray and MRI data have been used to calibrate such rules (Heinz &amp; Stevens 1964, Sundberg et al. 1987, Ericsdotter 2005). Although this procedure has produced many useful results it is time consuming and laborious. It is speaker-specific. It presupposes access to information on the three-dimensional shape of the VT, which is not experimentally readily accessible. Such observations raise the question whether sufficiently accurate alternative approaches can be developed. Is it possible to go straight from articulatory data to formant frequencies without having to construct a cross-sectional area function? If such methods could be developed it would have many uses both in phonetics and practical applications. This paper reports an attempt to map the time variations of selected articulatory parameters from X-ray profiles directly on the formant tracks using multiple regression analysis. Preliminary results for F1 indicate that multiple regression analysis can indeed be useful for making such predictions. The prospects of extending the present analyses to other formants are discussed.

Dentition is a key vertebrate innovation showing not only great morphological diversity, but also different maintenance or replacement of functional teeth. Most extant vertebrates replace their dentition through addition of new teeth from deeply invaginated epithelium, i.e. the successional dental lamina, due to presence of dental stem cells. However, in some early branching lineages of ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii), new tooth germs arise from the adjacent superficial epithelium without the presence of the successional dental lamina. Whether the two types of dental development in vertebrates are equivalent and whether comparable dental stem cells play role in tooth replacement is currently not satisfactorily evaluated. This Master thesis aims at describing the development of palatal and pharyngeal dentition of a member of an early branching lineage of ray-finned fishes, the sterlet sturgeon (Acipenser ruthenus). The sterlet dentition is fairly dynamic. The teeth are replaced without the successional dental lamina, however, this replacement shows characteristics similar to those described in vertebrates with the successional dental lamina. A marker of dental stem/progenitor cells, Sox2, is localized in the outer dental epithelium of the predecessor tooth in the vicinity of the adjacent taste...

Contexte : Peu d’études ont recherché le rôle des facteurs de risque professionnels dans la survenue des cancers des voies aérodigestives supérieures (VADS). Ces études ont été conduites principalement chez des hommes.Objectif : L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier les associations entre les cancers des VADS et les expositions professionnelles chez les femmes.Méthodes : Icare est une étude cas-témoins en population générale incluant 296 cas féminins de cancers épidermoïdes des VADS et 775 femmes témoins. Les historiques de carrières recueillis ont été codés et croisés avec les matrices emplois-expositions du programme Matgéné. Outre les intitulés d’emplois, les expositions à 5 solvants chlorés (chloroforme, chlorure de méthylène, perchloréthylène, trichloréthylène, tétrachlorure de carbone), 5 solvants oxygénés (éthylène glycol, tétrahydrofurane, éther éthylique, cétones, alcools), 5 solvants pétroliers (essences carburants, essences spéciales, gazole, benzène, white-spirit) et à 7 poussières et fibres (amiante, farine, cuir, fibres céramiques réfractaires, ciment, laines minérales, silice) ont été étudiées. Les odds-ratios et leurs intervalles de confiance à 95% ajustés sur l’âge, le département, les consommations de tabac et d’alcool ont été estimés par régressions logistiques non conditionnelles.Résultats :Plusieurs professions et secteurs d’activité associés à un risque élevé de cancer des VADS ont été identifiés. Certaines professions (ouvrières de l’alimentation et des boissons, monteuses en appareillage électrique ou électronique, soudeuses) peuvent être à l’origine d’expositions professionnelles aux solvants, aux métaux, aux fumées de soudage et à diverses poussières. Les analyses par nuisance ont mis en évidence des associations significatives entre le risque de cancer des VADS et l’exposition au perchloréthylène et au au trichloréthylène. Aucune association claire n’est observée avec les solvants pétroliers et oxygénés, certains largement utilisés par les femmes L’exposition aux poussières de farine augmente significativement le risque de cancer des VADS. Une exposition probable à l’amiante est associée à une augmentation modérée et non significative du risque. Les analyses par localisation de cancer (cavité orale, pharynx, larynx), limitées par des effectifs faibles, ne mettent pas en évidence d’association spécifique.Conclusion : Nos résultats suggèrent un rôle des expositions professionnelles au trichloréthylène, au perchloréthylène et aux poussières de farine dans la survenue des cancers des VADS chez les femmes. / Background : Few occupational studies have addressed head and neck cancer, and these studies have been predominantly conducted in men. Objective : Our objective was to investigate the associations between head and neck cancer and occupational exposures in women Population and methods : ICARE, a French population-based case–control study, included 296 squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck (HNSCC) in women and 775 female controls. Lifelong occupational history was collected. Job-exposure matrices were used to assess exposure to five chlorinated solvents (carbon tetrachloride; chloroform; methylene chloride; perchloroethylene; trichloroethylene), 5 petroleum solvents (benzene; special petroleum product; gasoline; white-spirits and other light aromatic mixtures; diesel, fuels and kerosene), 5 oxygenated solvents (alcohols; ketones and esters; ethylene glycol; diethyl ether; tetrahydrofuran) and 7 fibers and dusts (asbestos, flour dust, leather dust, refractory ceramic fibers, cement dust, mineral wools and silica) . An analysis by job title was conducted, and then associations with specific occupational exposures were investigated.Odds ratio (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI), adjusted for smoking, alcohol drinking, age and residence area, were estimated with logistic models. Results : Significantly increased HNSCC risks were found for several jobs and industries. Some of these occupations (food and beverage processors, electrical and electronic equipment assemblers, welders and flame cutters) may entail exposure to agents such as solvents, metals, welding fumes and various dusts. Analyses for specific occupational exposures showed a significantly elevated risk of HNSCC associated with exposure to trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. There is no clear evidence that petroleum or oxygenated solvents, some of them commonly used by women, are risk factors for HNSCC. Exposure to flour dust increased significantly HNSCC risk. Probable exposure to asbestos was associated with a moderate, non-significant elevation in risk. Analyses by cancer site (oral cavity, pharynx, larynx) were hampered by small numbers and did to reveal any specific association.Conclusion : These findings suggest that occupational exposure to perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene and flour dust may increase the risk of HNSCC in women.

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common head and neck cancer, with a worldwide incidence of 275,000 new cases annually (Warnakulasuriya, 2009). Globally, the head and neck carcinoma represents a major cause of morbidity and mortality and is the sixth most commonly occurring cancer (Warnakulasuriya, 2009). A majority (>90%) of the head and neck cancers are squamous in origin and thus are linguistically referred to as head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) (Warnakulasuriya, 2009). HNSCC includes cancers of the oral cavity, larynx and pharynx; oral cancer being the most common (Warnakulasuriya, 2009). Although, HNSCC is the sixth most common cancer globally (Warnakulasuriya, 2009), the Indian scenario is graver. According to GLOBOCAN 2008 (http://globocan.iarc.fr), the worldwide age standardized incidence rate (ASR) for HNSCC (and thus OSCC) is 5.3 and 2.5 per 100,000 males and females respectively (Ferlay et al., 2010). In India, the ASR is 9.8 and 5.2 per 100,000 males and females respectively, clearly demonstrating a remarkably high incidence rate of OSCC (Ferlay et al., 2010; http://globocan.iarc.fr). OSCC is a peculiar cancer which is largely preventable and rarely presents as a familial disorder. The most common etiological factors associated with OSCC include tobacco and alcohol consumption (Johnson, 2001). Additionally, high risk human papillomaviruses (HPV strains 16 and 18) as well as genetic predispositions have been implicated. The treatment of OSCC mainly relies on surgical resection of the tumor. The site, size, depth of infiltration and proximity to the bone of the tumor determine whether a combination of surgery with radiation therapy or chemotherapy would be advised (Scully and Bagan, 2009). The concomitant chemo-radiation therapy is the most commonly used strategy in locally advanced cancer. Taxanes (e.g., paclitaxel and docetaxel) and platinum-based induction chemotherapy (e.g., cisplatin) are the options in the treatment of locally advanced cancer. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) targeted with cetuximab in combination with radiotherapy has been successfully tested in a large randomized trial and thus is currently a new option (Scully and Bagan, 2009). The success of cetuximab has paved the path for the development and implementation of molecules targeting various signaling pathways. Despite extensive research on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), the five-year survival rate has not changed in several decades with the exception of the targeted treatment strategies involving cetuximab as discussed above. The current chemotherapeutic approaches lack selectivity and are flagitious. Thus, effective treatment of OSCC requires the identification of molecular targets to design appropriate therapeutic strategies. To this end, the present study took three distinct approaches in order to validate the use of existing targets and to reveal novel prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. 1) Targeting the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway in OSCC and identification of determinants of its sensitivity. 2) Gene expression analysis of ectopically overexpressed TSC2 to identify new therapeutic targets and prognostic biomarkers as well as to elucidate the genes regulated by it. 3) Expression profiling of CYP1B1 in order to validate the use of CYP1B1 based prodrug therapy in OSCC. Investigations pertaining to the changes in gene and protein expression profiles in malignant as well as pre-malignant lesions have documented the deregulation of the PI3K-AKT-MTOR (phosphoinositide 3-kinase-AKT-mechanistic target of rapamycin) and EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) pathways in OSCC which are being widely targeted in many therapeutic strategies (Molinolo et al., 2007; Chakraborty et al., 2008; Matta and Ralhan, 2009; Molinolo et al., 2009; Stransky et al., 2011). The PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway is a central hub for controlling cellular proliferation and growth in response to various intracellular as well as extracellular stimuli. Crucial signaling cascades including WNT, RAS, HIF-1α and AMPK cross-talk with the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway at a variety of molecular junctions. Thus, making this pathway sensitive to perceiving various growth modulatory conditions, ranging from the presence of growth factors to hypoxia and nutrient deprivation (Sengupta et al., 2010; Yang and Guan, 2007). The aberrant expression of the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway in OSCC advocated the targeting of this coveted pathway (Chakraborty et al., 2008). In various cancers, the monotherapeutic treatments with inhibitors like LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor) and rapamycin (MTOR inhibitor) demonstrated reduced efficacies. Such reduced efficacies were attributed to the drug toxicity and non-specific action of LY294002 (Davies et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2005; Ikezoe et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2009), or the ablation of a feedback inhibition loop leading to the reactivation of the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway by rapamycin (O'Reilly et al., 2006; Carracedo et al., 2008). Thus, rapamycin or its analogues demonstrated mediocre efficacy due to cytostatic effects in clinical trials, primarily due to the paradoxical activation of major survival kinases namely MAPK and AKT (O'Reilly et al., 2006; Carracedo et al., 2008). The present study aimed at increasing the efficacy of these drugs by incorporating a combinatorial approach. The MTT assay demonstrated that prolonged monotherapeutic treatments with rapamycin led to a modest growth inhibition in three OSCC (KB, SCC131 and SCC084) and HeLa cell lines. Western blot analysis of the phosphorylation status of AKT and RPS6KB1 revealed that monotherapeutic treatments with rapamycin for 96 hr led to the reactivation of the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway. Thus, the modest growth inhibitory effect of rapamycin was attributed to the reactivation of the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway. A combinatorial treatment approach was hence believed to circumvent this problem in order to increase the efficacy of targeting the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway. The PI3K inhibitor LY294002 was used combinatorially with rapamycin. This prolonged dual combinatorial treatment regime was distinctly more efficacious than either of the drugs alone and led to a reduction in cellular viability accompanied by increased sub-G1 population, indicating marked cell death that was characterized as caspase-3 dependent apoptosis. The differential sensitivity of the cell lines towards this combinatorial treatment revealed a novel determinant of the sensitivity, the transactivation of EGFR. The cell lines (SCC131 and SCC084) that were capable of transactivating EGFR were relatively resistant to the dual targeting of PI3K and MTOR in comparison to cell lines that did not transactivate EGFR (HeLa and KB). Further, targeting PI3K, MTOR and EGFR simultaneously was more efficacious in the presence of EGFR transactivation than dually targeting PI3K and MTOR. The results conclusively proved that the combinatorial therapeutic approach dually targeting PI3K and MTOR is a promising treatment strategy as compared to a monotherapeutic treatment and a major factor determining the sensitivity towards this treatment is the status of autophosphorylation of EGFR (Tyr1173) which governs the potential for EGFR transactivation by the combinatorial treatment. Thus, this study demonstrated that the status of EGFR autophosphorylation (Tyr1173) can be used as a biomarker to predict the sensitivity towards the combinatorial targeting of PI3K and MTOR in OSCC. The PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway is negatively regulated by TSC2 (tuberous sclerosis complex 2; tuberin) (Tee et al., 2002). The importance of the TSC2 gene in the regulation of cell growth and proliferation is irrefutable. TSC2 facilitates the crosstalk between a variety of cellular signals, making it a crucial hub where many cellular networks integrate like AKT, MAPK and AMPK (Clements et al., 2007; Rosner et al., 2007; Rosner et al., 2008). It is a tumor suppressor gene and is downregulated in many cancers including OSCC (Chakraborty et al., 2008). In order to identify the genes regulated by TSC2 in OSCC, we stably overexpressed TSC2 in KB cells and the changes in the gene expression profiles caused by this ectopic overexpression were observed using a whole genome expression microarray. The results showed differential regulation of 268 genes (107 genes were upregulated and 161 genes were downregulated, p<0.05, fold change ≥ 1.5). A majority of these genes were functionally associated with transcription, cell growth and proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle and neurogenesis. Functional annotation and network analysis was performed by using the DAVID v6.7 and IPA version 8.7 softwares. The microarray data revealed a novel aspect in the crosstalk between WNT signaling and TSC2, namely the transcriptional regulation of WNT signaling by TSC2. Further, in the context of therapeutic applications, the microarray analysis revealed multiple genes that were functionally categorized to be involved in response to radiation, UV and drugs (e.g., SERPINB13 and IL1B). Future studies on the regulation of such genes that are involved in responses to drugs and radiation may give insights into the role of TSC2 in resistance or sensitivity towards chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Moreover, EREG, a member of the epidermal growth factor family, was found to be the most downregulated gene in the microarray analysis. Previous reports have documented elevated levels of EREG in tuberous sclerosis lesions and its association with poor clinical prognosis in OSCC patients (Li et al., 2008; Shigeishi et al., 2008), making its regulatory aspects intriguing. Additionally, published data on the transcriptional functions of TSC2 instigated us to analyze the role of TSC2 in the regulation of EREG. TSC2 has been shown to modulate the transcription mediated by members of the steroid receptor superfamily of genes (Henry et al., 1998) and was shown to bind specifically to ERα and inhibit estrogen induced proliferation (Finlay et al., 2004). Also, TSC2 has been shown to possess C-terminal transcriptional activation domains (Tsuchiya et al., 1996). We have therefore attempted to investigate the transcription related functional aspects of TSC2 by exploiting the observed transcriptional repression of EREG. The physiological roles of TSC1 and TSC2 that are independent of the PI3K-AKT-MTOR pathway have been termed as ‘non-canonical’ (Neuman and Henske, 2011). The repression of EREG by TSC2 was observed to be insensitive to rapamycin, suggesting that it was independent of MTORC1 and thus a non-canonical function of TSC2. To determine whether the repression in EREG was at the level of the promoter, we performed a dual luciferase reporter assay. The results showed that the EREG promoter was repressed by stable as well as transient overexpression of TSC2. In order to elucidate the mechanism of transcriptional regulation by TSC2, we performed the ChIP analysis to observe the in vivo binding of TSC2 to the EREG promoter. In the ChIP analysis with the anti-TSC2 antibody, we observed that TSC2 did not bind to the EREG promoter between the regions -857 bp to -302 bp or -325 bp to +165 bp. Further, in silico analysis revealed an interesting trend among the transcription factors that were differentially regulated by TSC2 and had putative binding sites on the EREG promoter. A majority of these transcription factors (17/21) were downregulated by the overexpression of TSC2. This observation suggested that the repression of EREG could be an indirect effect due to repression of transcription factors caused by overexpression of TSC2. On the whole, this study revealed novel functions of TSC2 in OSCC with implications in determining novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets. As discussed previously, OSCC has a very flagitious treatment regime. A prodrug approach is thought to aid in targeting chemotherapy (Rooseboom et al., 2004). CYP1B1, a member of the cytochrome P450 family, has been implicated in chemical carcinogenesis (Bandiera et al., 2005; Sliwinski et al., 2010). There exists a general accordance that this protein is overexpressed in a variety of cancers (e.g., colon, lung, renal, bladder, prostate, breast, endometrial and esophageal cancers), making it an ideal candidate for a prodrug therapy (McFadyen et al., 1999; Murray et al., 2001; McFadyen et al., 2004; Sissung et al., 2006; Wen and Walle, 2007; Sliwinski et al., 2010). The activation of the prodrug facilitated by CYP1B1 would enable the targeting of chemotherapy to tumor tissues in which CYP1B1 is specifically overexpressed as a result reducing the non-specific side effects that the current chemotherapy elicits (Rooseboom et al., 2004). This study was aimed at validating the use of CYP1B1 as a target for the prodrug therapy in OSCC. The expression profile of CYP1B1 was analysed in a panel of 51 OSCC tumors, their corresponding normal tissues, an epithelial dysplasia lesion and its matched normal tissue by qRT-PCR, Western blotting and Immunohistochemistry. Counterintuitively, CYP1B1 was found to be downregulated in 77.78% (28/36) tumor tissues in comparison to their corresponding normal tissues as well as in the epithelial dysplasia lesion compared to its matched normal tissue at the transcriptional level, and in 92.86% (26/28) of tumor tissues at the protein level. This clearly demonstrated the downregulation of CYP1B1 at the transcriptional and translational levels in tumor tissues in comparison to their corresponding normal tissues. These observations indicate that caution should be observed as this therapy may not be applicable universally to all cancers. Since CYP1B1 has been shown to be involved in the activation of pro-carcinogens (Murray et al., 2001; Bandiera et al., 2005; Sissung et al., 2006), its inhibition could facilitate the development of a prophylactic therapy for oral cancer. Overall, this study has identified the transactivation of EGFR as a determinant of sensitivity towards combinatorial targeting of PI3K and MTOR in OSCC and has demonstrated that the autophosphorylation of EGFR (Tyr1173) can be used as a marker to judge the sensitivity towards this treatment. In the clinical perspective, the identification of such markers would aid in predicting the efficacy of targeted therapies. Such investigations would enable the strategic treatment of OSCC patients, thus decreasing the time lost in trial and errors for determining the appropriate treatment. Additionally, this study elucidated a novel role of TSC2 in the transcriptional repression of EREG, a prognostic biomarker for OSCC. Further, the study revealed potential prognostic biomarkers as well as therapeutic targets that are regulated by TSC2 by using a whole genome expression microarray. Moreover, the counterintuitive downregulation of CYP1B1 in OSCC tumors suggested the possibility of a prophylactic therapy for oral cancer but also advised a precautionary note for the application of prodrug treatments based on CYP1B1 overexpression in OSCC.