Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Introduction: Cancer is an emerging health problem in South Africa, with breast cancer being one of the leading cancers affecting women globally. Therefore, there is a need to find novel targets to improve the therapeutic options for these patients. A recently proposed target is the mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1). Studies have suggested that mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatases are involved in the development of cancer and play an important role in the response of cancer cells to chemotherapy. Additionally, numerous studies have indicated that there is increased expression of MKP-1 in breast cancers where its over-expression is proposed to be a significant mediator in chemo-resistance. We propose that inhibition of MKP-1 will increase the cytotoxic effect of doxorubicin in breast cancer cells, thus making the cells more responsive to treatment leading to increased cell death through autophagy and apoptosis. Methods: In MDA-MB231 cells, MKP-1 was inhibited using sanguinarine or MKP-1 siRNA and this was compared to a known inducer of MKP-1, dexamethasone. MDA-MB231 cells were treated with doxorubicin alone or in combination with MKP-1 inhibitors or an inducer. Following treatment, cell death was determined by trypan blue and a caspase glo assay as well as with western blotting. Autophagy was determined by western blotting and flow cytometry. LC3 and p62 were used as markers of autophagy and caspase 3 and PARP as apoptosis markers. Likewise, the level of MKP-1 expression under conditions of MKP-1 induction, inhibition or silencing was evaluated by means of western blotting. C57BL6 tumour bearing mice was used to analyse apoptosis and autophagy in vivo under conditions of MKP-1 inhibition, using sanguinarine, together with doxorubicin treatment. Western blotting was used to determine levels of caspase 3, LC3, p62 and MKP-1 expression. Results and discussion: A concentration and time curve indicated that 5 μM doxorubicin reduced cell viability in the MDA-MB231 cells significantly after 24 hours of treatment. MKP-1 expression was significantly reduced with sanguinarine and MKP-1 siRNA. Furthermore, our results indicate a significant increase in apoptosis in MDA-MB231 cells when treated with doxorubicin, under conditions of MKP-1 inhibition or MKP-1 silencing. Also, an increase in autophagic activity was observed following treatment with doxorubicin in combination with sanguinarine. Whole excised tumours of C57BL6 mice also showed an increase in apoptosis and autophagy following treatment with sanguinarine in combination with doxorubicin. This indicates that the inhibition of MKP-1 with sanguinarine sensitized the MDA-MB231 cells and E0771 cell tumours to doxorubicin-induced-apoptosis through a mechanism involving autophagy. Conclusion: This is an encouraging finding that could hopefully be used in future studies to overcome doxorubicin-resistance in breast cancer cells overexpressing MKP-1. Targeting MKP-1 can have potential therapeutic benefits for breast cancer patients by making chemotherapy more effective. Sanguinarine thus has potential to be developed as a clinically relevant inhibitor of MKP-1 which could provide a novel avenue for therapeutic intervention in combination with chemotherapy in breast cancer patients. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Inleiding: Kanker is 'n vinnig groeiende gesondheidsprobleem in Suid-Afrika, met borskanker as een van die vernaamste kankers wat vroue wêreldwyd raak. Daar is dus 'n behoefte aan nuwe terapeutiese opsies vir hierdie pasiënte en mitogeen-geaktiveerde proteïenkinase fosfatase-1 (MKP-1) is onlangs voorgestel as ‘n moontlike teiken. Verskeie studies toon dat mitogeen-geaktiveerde proteïenkinase fosfatases betrokke is by die ontwikkeling van kanker en ook belangrike rolspelers is in die reaksie van kanker op chemoterapie. Daarbenewens toon talle studies dat daar verhoogde MKP-1 uitdrukking in borskanker is, asook dat dit ‘n belangrike bemiddelaar is vir die weerstand wat borskanker teen chemoterapie bied. Ons het dus voorgestel dat die inhibisie van MKP-1 die sitotoksiese effek van doxorubicin op borskanker selle sal verhoog; sodoende sal die kanker selle beter reageer op behandeling en dit sal dus lei tot verhoogde seldood deur autofagie en apoptose. Metodes: MKP-1 is geïnhibeer met behulp van sanguinarine of MKP-1 siRNA in MDA-MB231 selle en dit is vergelyk met 'n bekende MKP-1 induseerder, dexamethasone. MDA-MB231 selle is met doxorubicin alleen behandel of in kombinasie met MKP-1 inhibeerders of ‘n induseerder. Seldood is bepaal deur middel van ‘n trypan blou en kaspase toetsingsmetode, asook met die westelike kladtegniek. Autofagie is bepaal deur westelike kladtegniek en vloeisitometrie. LC3 en p62 is gebruik as merkers van autofagie en kaspase 3 en PARP is as apoptose merkers gebruik. MKP-1 uitdrukking is geëvalueer deur middel van westelike kladtegniek. C57BL6 muise met kankeragtige gewasse is gebruik om apoptose en autofagie in vivo te ondersoek. MKP-1 is geïnhibeer met sanguinarine en die muise is behandel met ‘n kombinasie van sanguinarine en doxorubicin. Kaspase 3, LC3, p62 en MKP-1 uitdrukking is bepaal deur middel van die westelike kladtegniek. Resultate en bespreking: ‘n Konsentrasie en tyd kurwe het aangedui dat 5 μM doxorubicin die MDA-MB231 selle se lewensvatbaarheid aansienlik verminder het na 24 uur. MKP-1 uitdrukking is ook aansienlik verminder met sanguinarine en MKP-1 siRNA. Verder dui die resultate op 'n beduidende toename in apoptose in MDA-MB231 selle na behandeling met doxorubicin onder toestande van MKP-1 inhibisie. 'n Toename in autofagiese aktiwiteit is waargeneem na behandeling met doxorubicin en sanguinarine. Die kankeragtige gewasse van die C57BL6 muise toon ook 'n toename in apoptose en autofagie na behandeling met sanguinarine en doxorubicin. Hierdie resultate dui daarop dat die inhibisie van MKP-1 met sanguinarine die MDA-MB231 selle en E0771 sel gewasse gesensitiseer het tot doxorubicin-geïnduseerde apoptose deur middel van ‘n meganisme wat autofagie insluit. Gevolgtrekking: Hierdie bevinding kan hopelik in toekomstige studies gebruik word om doxorubicin weerstand te oorkom in borskanker selle waar MKP-1 verhoog is. Deur MKP-1 te teiken, kan dit lei tot potensiële terapeutiese voordele vir borskanker pasiënte en sodoende kan dit chemoterapie meer effektief maak. Sanguinarine het dus die potensiaal om ontwikkel te word as ‘n klinies relevante inhibeerder van MKP-1 wat sodoende kan dien as terapeutiese intervensie in kombinasie met chemoterapie vir borskanker pasiënte.

Thesis (PhD (Med))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The increase in the prescription and use of glucocorticoids (GCs) to treat various diseases and resulting decrease in bone density and development of osteoporosis is of growing concern. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GCIO) is a relatively under-researched disease with the mechanism by which GCs affect bone metabolism not yet fully delineated. This holds especially true for the early events in bone development. The negative effects of GCs are predominantly seen in osteoblasts, the cells responsible for bone formation, in that GCs diminish both the numbers and function of osteoblastic cells. Osteoblast precursor cell proliferation is crucial to ensure the existence of a healthy pool of osteoblastic cells needed to form new bone after bone resorption by osteoclasts. Previously, it was shown that GCs reduce the proliferation of immortalised osteoblastic cell lines. In addition, early immortalised preosteoblasts were more sensitive to GCs than their mature counterparts. However, these cells have corrupted cell cycles; therefore, primitive primary mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) were used in this study to examine the effect of GCs on the mitogen-induced proliferation of early osteoblast precursor cells (naïve MSCs and preosteoblasts) using the synthetic GC, dexamethasone (Dex). Mitogenic conditions established for naïve rat mesenchymal stromal cells (rMSCs) indicated that mild (5% FBS) stimulation is sufficient to induce proliferation, whereas a higher FBS concentration (20% FBS) was mitogenic in primary preosteoblasts. It was also found that pharmacological doses of Dex drastically decreased the mitogen-induced proliferation of both naïve rat MSCs (rMSCs) and preosteoblasts. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathways, such as ERK1/2, govern cell proliferation. GCs have been shown to decrease the activity of ERK1/2, which is associated with decreased proliferation in osteoblastic cells. In the present study, western blot analysis showed that Dex reduced the proliferation-associated shoulder of the ERK1/2 activity profile in both naïve rMSCs and preosteoblasts. Moreover, the ERK1/2 signalling pathway was shown to be essential for mitogen-stimulated growth of naïve rMSCs and preosteoblasts as the MEK1/2 inhibitor, U0126, inhibited mitogen-induced proliferation. Using western blot analysis, it was shown that, after mitogen administration, ERK1/2 activity exhibited a typical proliferation profile, which was blocked by U0126. Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) dephosphorylate and inactivate ERK1/2. Utilising sodium vanadate, an inhibitor of PTPs, in vitro phosphatase assays revealed that PTP activity was the predominant phosphatase activity present in naïve rMSCs and preosteoblast lysates after concomitant mitogen and Dex stimulation. The mRNA of the dual specificity phosphatase, MKP-1, was rapidly (within 30 minutes) upregulated after mitogen and Dex administration in both naïve rMSCs and preosteoblasts. However, the protein expression pattern of MKP-1 did not correspond to the mRNA induction, suggesting that the MKP-1 protein could be subjected to rapid degradation. These findings suggest that MKP-1 could possibly be involved in the GC regulation of mitogen-induced proliferation of early osteoblast precursor cells, but closer investigation is needed to fully elucidate this role. In addition, the involvement of other PTPs should not be excluded and warrants further investigation. During the course of the present study, it was found that strong mitogenic stimulation with 20% FBS led to oncogene-induced senescence (OIS). Flow cytometry analysis revealed the presence of two populations in naïve rMSCs preparations and DNA content analysis was consistent with that of cells undergoing OIS. These results indicated that the more primitive osteoblast precursor cells (naïve rMSCs) are more responsive to mitogens than their mature counterparts (preosteoblasts). In addition, it was found that the magnitude of ERK1/2 activation was increased in naïve rMSC after strong mitogenic stimulation, indicating that naïve rMSCs are still highly sensitive to stimulation with strong mitogens. In summary, these findings show that Dex decreased the proliferation of naïve rMSCs and preosteoblasts concomitantly with a decrease in ERK1/2 activity. In addition, Dex upregulated MKP-1 mRNA, but the same effect was not seen on the MKP-1 protein levels. Therefore, this suggests that PTP/s other than MKP-1 could be responsible for the inactivation of ERK1/2 by Dex, leading to decreased proliferation in naïve rMSCs and preosteoblasts. Further identification of PTPs that regulate osteoblast precursor cell numbers and function could lead to the elucidation of the mechanism through which GCs act to negatively influence bone density. This will improve our insights into the pathogenesis of GCIO and aid in the identification of therapeutic targets which can be exploited to develop new agents to treat osteoporosis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die toename in voorskrifte en gebruik van glukokortikoïede (GKs) om verskillende siektes te behandel en die gevolglike afname in been digtheid, is kommerwekkend. Glukokortikoïed geïnduseerde osteoporosis (GKIO) is 'n relatief min genavorste siekte waarvan die meganisme waardeur GKs been-metabolisme affekteer nog nie ten volle ontrafel is nie. Dit is veral waar ten opsigte van die vroeë stadia in beenontwikkeling. Die negatiewe uitwerking van GK's word oorwegend in osteoblaste, die selle wat verantwoordelik is vir beenformasie, waargeneem, waar GKs beide die getalle en funksie van osteoblaste verminder. Osteoblast voorloper-sel proliferasie is belangrik vir die handhawing van 'n gesonde poel osteoblastiese selle wat benodig word om nuwe been te vorm na beenresorpsie deur osteoklaste. Daar is gevind dat GKs proliferasie van verewigde preosteoblastiese sellyne verminder en dat jong verewigde preosteoblaste meer sensitief is vir GKs as hul meer volwasse ekwivalent. Die selle se selsiklusse is egter gekorrupteer en daarom was primitiewe primêre rot mesenkiem stromaselle (rMSCs) in hierde studie gebruik om die effek van GKs op mitogeen-geïnduseerde proliferasie van vroeë osteoblasvoorloperselle (naïwe MSC en preosteoblaste) deur die sintetiese GK, deksametasoon (Dex), te bestudeer. Mitogeniese kondisies vir naïwe rMSCs het getoon dat matige (5% FBS) stimulasie voldoende is om proliferasie te induseer, terwyl 'n hoë FBS konsentrasie (20% FBS) mitogenies was in primêre preosteoblaste. Daar is ook gevind dat farmokolgiese dosisse Dex die mitogeen-geïnduseerde proliferasie van beide naïwe rMSCs en preosteoblaste verminder. Die mitogeen-geïnduseerde protein kinase (MAPK) pad beheer selproliferasie. Die ekstrasellulêre gereguleerde kinase pad (ERK1/2) is voorheen as die hoofpad wat MBA 15.4 and MG 63 proliferasie beheer geïdentifiseer. Daar is gewys dat GKs die aktiwiteit van ERK1/2 verlaag en proliferasie van die selle verminder. In die huidige studie het western blot analise gewys dat Dex die proliferasie geassosieerde skoueraktiwiteit van die ERK1/2 aktiwiteitsprofiel in beide naïwe rMSCs en preosteoblaste verminder. Die noodsaaklike rol van ERK1/2 pad in mitogeen-gestimuleerde groei van die selle is bevestig deur die MEK1/2 inhibitor, U0126, wat die mitogeen-geïnduseerde proliferasie geïnhibeer het. Western blot analise het gewys dat die ERK1/2 aktiwiteit na mitogeen toediening 'n tipiese proliferasie profile toon wat deur U0126 geblokkeer word. Protein tirosien fosfatases (PTPs) defosforileer and inaktiveer ERK1/2. In vitro fosfatase bepalings met natrium vanadaat, 'n inhibitor van PTPs, het bevestig dat PTP die predominante fosfatase akitiwiteit is in naïwe rMSCs en preosteoblaste lisate is na gelyktydige mitogeen en Dex stimulasie. Die mRNA van die dubbele spesifisiteits fosfatase, MKP-1, is vinnig (binne 30 minute) opgereguleer is na mitogeen en Dex toediening in beide naïwe rMSCs en preosteoblaste. Die proteinekspressie van MKP-1 het egter nie met die mRNA ekspressie ooreengestem nie, wat suggereer dat die MKP-1protein blootgestel is aan vinnige degradasie. Hierdie bevindings stel voor dat MKP-1 moontlik 'n rol speel in die GC-regulering van mitogeen-geïnduseerde proliferasie van vroeë osteoblast voorloperselle maar verdere ondersoek is nodig om die rol ten volle te verklaar. Die betrokkenheid van ander PTPs moet egter nie uitgesluit word nie en regverdig verdere studie. Die huidige studie het bevind dat sterk mitogeniese-stimulasie met 20% FBS tot onkogene- geïnduseerde selgroeistilte (senescence) (OIS) lei. Vloeisitometriese analise het die teenwoordigheid van twee afsonderlike populasies getoon in die naïwe rMSCs preparate en die DNA inhoud was verenigbaar met die van selle wat OIS ondergaan. Die bevindinge stel voor dat die meer primatiewe osteoblast voorloperselle (naïwe rMSCs) is meer vatbaar vir mitogene-stimulasie as hul volwasse ekwivalente (preosteoblaste). Ook is gevind dat die mate van ERK1/2 aktivering hoër was in naïwe rMSCs, selfs na sterk mitogeniese stimulasie wat daarop dui dat naïwe rMSCs steeds hoogs sensitifief is vir stimulasie met sterk mitogene. In opsomming, dui die bevindinge dat Dex die proliferasie van naïwe rMSCs en preosteoblaste onderdruk wat met 'n verlaging van ERK1/2 aktiwiteit gepaard gaan. Verder, het Dex, MKP-1 mRNA opgereguleer maar die effek is nie op die proteinvlak waargeneem nie. Dit suggereer dat PTP/s anders as MKP-1 verantwoordelik kan wees vir die Dex inaktivering van ERK1/2 wat die proliferasie van naïwe rMSCs en preosteoblaste onderdruk.

published_or_final_version / Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine / Master / Master of Philosophy

In all sequenced genomes, a large fraction of predicted genes encodes proteins of unknown biochemical function and up to 15% of the genes with ‘‘known’’ function are mis-annotated. Several global approaches are being employed to predict function, including sequence similarity searches, analysis of gene expression, protein interaction, and protein structure. Enzymes comprise a group of target proteins that require experimental characterization for accurate functional annotations. Here I applied enzyme genomics to identify new enzymes by screening individually purified proteins for enzymatic activity under relaxed reaction conditions, which allowed me to identify the subclass or sub-subclasses of enzymes to which the unknown protein belongs. Further biochemical characterization of proteins was facilitated by the application of secondary screens with natural substrates (substrate profiling). Application of general enzymatic screens and substrate profiling greatly sped up the identification of biochemical function of unknown proteins and the experimental verification of functional predictions produced by other functional genomics approaches. As a test case, I used this approach to characterize the members of the haloacid dehalogenase (HAD)-like hydrolase superfamily, which consists mainly of uncharacterized enzymes, with a few members shown to possess phosphatase, beta-phosphoglucomutase, phosphonatase, and dehalogenase activities. Low sequence similarity between the members of the HAD superfamily precludes the computational prediction of their substrates and functions. Using a representative set of 80 phosphorylated substrates I characterized the phosphatase activities of 21 soluble HADs from Escherichia coli and seven soluble HADs from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. E. coli HADs show broad and overlapping substrate specificity against a wide range of phosphorylated metabolites. The yeast enzymes were more specific, and one protein also showed protein phosphatase activity. Comparison of HAD substrate profiles from two model organisms showed several “functional niches” that are occupied by HADs, which include hydrolysis of nucleotides, phosphoglycolate, phosphoserine, and pyridoxal phosphate. I proposed the cellular function for a number of HADs from both organisms based on substrate specificities. The physiological relevance of the phosphatase activity with the preferred substrate was validated in vivo for one of the HADs, E. coli YniC.

Reversible protein phosphorylation is considered the universal language for intracellular communication in all living organisms. This process, catalysed by protein kinases and phosphatases, enables the translation of extracellular signals into cellular responses and also allows for adaptation to a constantly changing environment. In recent years, a number of bacterial eukaryotic-type Ser/Thr protein kinases and phosphatases have been identified. However, their precise functions and substrates are not yet well defined. The genome of opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa contains at least five genes encoding putative eukaryotic-type Ser/Thr protein kinases and phosphatases. In the first part of this study, we have attempted to establish the role of Ser/Thr protein kinase PpkA and phosphatase PppA, which belong to type VI secretion system H1-T6SS. Double mutant strain ∆pppA-ppkA was prepared in P. aeruginosa PAO1 background. Phenotypic studies revealed that the mutant grew slower than the wild-type strain in minimal media and exhibited reduced secretion of pigment pyocyanin. In addition, the mutant had altered sensitivity to oxidative and hyperosmotic stress conditions. Consequently, mutant cells had an impaired ability to survive in murine macrophages and an attenuated virulence in the...

Este trabalho teve por objetivo dissecar o papel potencial de fosforilação/desfosforilação como efeitos da ativação de PfSR25, um candidato a receptor serpentina de P. falciparum. Como a sinalização é um evento celular complexo, não excluímos a possibilidade de que outros mecanismos moleculares ocorram além dos aqui descritos. Nossas conclusões são que potássio modula PfSR25, ativando quinases/fosfatases, levando à ativação de moléculas efetoras. Encontramos MSP1, proteína já caracterizada e Pf4-4-13 e o fator básico de transcrição 3B (PfBTF3B), que ainda não foram caracterizados em P. falciparum, como efetores. Estes dados sugerem que pelo menos em parte, o mecanismo pelo qual PfSR25 exerce seu papel no desenvolvimento de P. falciparum seja através da ativação de quinases/fosfatases. Isto não é surpreendente, pois a sinalização de PfSR25 ocorre através de K+/cálcio e o segundo mensageiro é um modulador destas classes de proteínas. No entanto, deve ser investigado se cálcio tem algum efeito direto sobre o processamento/ativação dos efetores aqui identificados. / This work aimed at dissecting the potential role of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation as downstream effect of PfSR25 activation. PfSR25 is a serpentine receptor candidate from P. falciparum. As signaling is a quite complex cellular event, we do not exclude the possibility that other molecular mechanisms, take place additionally to those here described. Our conclusions are that potassium modulates PfSR25 by activation of kinases/phosphatases, leading to activation of effector molecules. We found MSP1 already characterized protein and Pf4.4.13 and the basic transcription factor 3B (PfBTF3B), which have not yet been characterized in P. falciparum as effectors. These data suggest that, at least in part, the mechanism by which PfSR25 exerts its role in the P. falciparum development is through the activation of kinase/phosphatase. This is not surprising, since PfSR25 signaling occurs through K+/Calcium and the second messenger is a modulator of these classes of proteins. However, remains to be investigated rather calcium has a direct effect on processing/activation the effectors here identified.

No description available.

Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire a pour thème central la synthèse de nouvelles quinones, et plus spécialement des terpénylquinones et des hétéroquinones, composés bien connus pour avoir des propriétés biologiques intéressantes. Dans une première partie, la synthèse d'un podocarpane fonctionnalisé, intermédiaire avancé vers l'accès de terpénylquinones naturelles comme le célaphanol A, est présenté. La seconde partie, qui a été consacrée à la synthèse d'hétéroquinones, s'articule autour de deux axes, la préparation d'hétéroquinones substituées par deux chaînes thioalkyles d'une part et la synthèse d'hétéroquinones possédant une activité antipaludique d'autre part. Les produits obtenus dans le cadre du premier axe ont été testés en tant qu'agents anticancéreux (inhibiteurs de phosphatases CDC25), et l'évaluation de l'activité biologique des hétéroquinones comme agents antipaludiques nous a permis d'identifier le meilleur substrat qui a été couplé avec un dérivé terpénique.

Die vakuoläre Protonen-ATPase, kurz V-ATPase, ist ein multimerer Enzymkomplex, der in fast jeder eukaryotischen Zelle zu finden ist und den aktiven elektrogenen Transport von Protonen über Membranen katalysiert. Die Aktivität der V-ATPase ist essentiell für eine Vielzahl physiologischer Prozesse. Ein grundlegender Mechanismus zur Regulation der V-ATPase-Aktivität ist die reversible Dissoziation des Holoenzyms in den integralen VO-Komplex, der als Protonenkanal dient, und den cytosolischen V1-Komplex, der ATP hydrolysiert und somit den Protonentransport energetisiert. Die Untereinheit C, die im dissoziierten Zustand der V-ATPase als einzige Untereinheit isoliert im Cytoplasma vorliegt, scheint bei der Bildung des aktiven Holoenzyms eine Schlüsselrolle zu übernehmen. In den Speicheldrüsen der Schmeißfliege Calliphora vicina ist die V-ATPase an der Speichelsekretion beteiligt. In den sekretorischen Zellen wird die Bildung des V-ATPase-Holoenzyms in der apikalen Plasmamembran durch das Neurohormon Serotonin (5-HT) stimuliert. Der Effekt von 5-HT auf die V-ATPase wird intrazellulär durch die Proteinkinase A (PKA) vermittelt und hält nur für die Dauer der Stimulierung an. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde mittels Phosphoproteinfärbungen und 2D-Elektrophorese nachgewiesen, dass infolge einer Stimulierung der Drüsenzellen mit 5-HT die Untereinheit C der V-ATPase durch die PKA reversibel phosphoryliert wird. Die Phosphorylierung geht einher mit einer Umverteilung der Untereinheit C aus dem Cytoplasma zur apikalen Plasmamembran und der Bildung des aktiven Holoenzyms. Immuncytochemische Untersuchungen zeigten, dass die katalytische Untereinheit der PKA ebenfalls umverteilt wird und in stimulierten Zellen im Bereich der apikalen Plasmamembran konzentriert vorliegt. Um herauszufinden welche Proteinphosphatase der PKA entgegenwirkt, wurden luminale pH-Messungen durchgeführt und der Effekt von spezifischen Proteinphosphatase-Inhibitoren und veresterten Komplexbildnern zweiwertiger Kationen auf die V-ATPase-Aktivität untersucht. Diese Messungen führten zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass eine Proteinphosphatase des Typs 2C an der Inaktivierung der V-ATPase beteiligt ist. Mit weiteren Phosphoproteinfärbungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Dephosphorylierung der Untereinheit C ebenfalls durch eine Proteinphosphatase 2C katalysiert wird und dies vermutlich die Dissoziation des VO- und V1-Komplexes begünstigt. Darüber hinaus konnte durch luminale pH-Messungen und ergänzende biochemische Untersuchungen eine Calcineurin-vermittelte Modulation des cAMP/PKA-Signalweges durch den parallel aktivierten IP3/Ca2+-Signalweg und damit einhergehend eine Beeinflussung der V-ATPase-Aktivität durch den [Ca2+]-Spiegel nachgewiesen werden. / The vacuolar-type H+-ATPase (V-ATPase) is a multimeric enzyme that can be found in nearly every eukaryotic cell. It catalyses the active electrogenic transport of protons across membranes and is essential for a multitude of physiological processes. A fundamental mechanism to regulate V-ATPase activity is the reversible dissociation of the holoenzyme into an integral proton conducting VO-complex and a cytosolic V1-complex that hydrolyses ATP and thus energises proton translocation. Subunit C occurs isolated in the cytoplasm upon dissociation of the V-ATPase complexes and seems to be critical for the formation of active holoenzymes. In the salivary glands of the blowfly Calliphora vicina the V-ATPase is involved in fluid secretion. In secretory cells, formation of the V-ATPase holoenzyme is stimulated by the hormone serotonin (5-HT). The effect of 5-HT on V-ATPase activity is mediated by protein kinase A (PKA) and persists for the duration of the 5-HT stimulus. In this study, it was shown by phosphoprotein stainings and two-dimensional electrophoresis that subunit C of the V-ATPase becomes phosphorylated by PKA upon exposure of blowfly salivary glands to 5-HT. Parallel to the phosphorylation event, subunit C translocates from the cytoplasm to the apical plasma membrane for the assembly of active V-ATPase holoenzymes. Using immunofluorescence staining, it could be shown that PKA catalytic subunit translocates as well to the apical membrane upon 5-HT stimulation. To examine which protein phosphatase counteracts PKA, luminal pH-measurements were carried out. Based on the results with protein phosphatase inhibitors and esterified chelating agents of bivalent cations, it may be concluded that a protein phosphatase 2C is involved in the process leading to V-ATPase inactivation. Phosphoprotein stainings revealed that dephosphorylation of subunit C is likewise catalysed by a protein phosphatase 2C. Therefore the dephosphorylation of subunit C seems to promote dissociation of VO- and V1-complexes. Finally, luminal pH-measurements and supplemental biochemical experiments revealed a Ca2+/calcineurin-mediated modulation of the cAMP/PKA signalling cascade and an influence of intracellular calcium on the V-ATPase activity.

Cancers display heterogeneity in genetic profiles of the individual cancer cells and in the composition of different malignant and non-malignant cell populations. Such intra-tumor heterogeneity plays a role in treatment response and the emergence of resistance to cancer therapies. Approaches that address this complexity and improve stratification of patients for treatment are therefore highly warranted. Thus, the aims of this thesis were to further develop and apply in situ technologies for expression and mutation analyses of candidate cancer genes to gain a deeper understanding of cancer biology and to study intra-tumor heterogeneity. In paper I, we established and validated a procedure for scalable in situ hybridization of large gene sets in human formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues for analysis of gene expression. This method was used in paper II for large-scale expression analysis of the tyrosine kinome and phosphatome, two gene families whose members are frequently mutated in many forms of cancers. Systematic, compartment-specific expression mapping at cell type resolution enabled us to identify several novel vascular markers that have gone unnoticed in bulk transcriptomic analyses. In papers III and IV, we used padlock probes for in situ mutation detection in single cells for studies of genetic intra-tumor heterogeneity. In paper III, multiplex detection and genotyping of oncogenic point mutations was demonstrated in routinely processed tissue materials, whereas in paper IV we further the application by demonstrating multiplex detection of fusion gene transcripts. Collectively, the work presented in this thesis employs in situ-based methods to obtain spatial resolution of gene expression and mutation patterns in normal and cancer tissues, thereby broadening our understanding of the cancer genome.