Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Nathan O. Nelson / Phosphorus (P) loss from non-point agricultural sources has been identified as a main contributor to degraded surface water quality throughout the United States. Excessive P inputs to surface waters can lead to eutrophication, increased water treatment costs, and negative health impacts. Therefore, agricultural best management practices (BMP) that promote water quality, through minimizing P loss, must be identified. Studies outlined in this thesis aim to determine the impacts of cover crops and P fertilizer placement on P loss in surface runoff and nutrient cycling in a no-till corn (Zea mays)-soybean (Glycine max) rotation and provide insight into how cover crop species selection and termination method affects potential P loss from crop tissue. The first study examined combined effects of cover crop and P fertilizer placement on total P, dissolved reactive P (DRP) and sediment losses in surface runoff from natural precipitation events. This large-scale field study was conducted near Manhattan, Kansas, at the Kansas Agricultural Watershed (KAW) Field Laboratory during the 2016 and 2017 cropping years. Two levels of cover crop [no cover crop (NC) and cover crop (CC)] and three levels of P fertilizer management [no P (CN), fall broadcast P (FB), and spring injected P (SI)] were used. Flow-weighted composite water samples were collected from precipitation events generating greater than 2.0 mm of surface runoff. Results from this study found the CC treatment increased DRP losses compared to NC in both cropping years; however, CC reduced sediment loss by over 50% compared to NC. Application of P fertilizer increased DRP losses compared CN in both cropping years, although SI resulted in lower quantities of DRP loss compared to FB. In addition, this study found that CC reduced biomass and yield of corn compared to NC and therefore decreased nutrient uptake, removal, and deposition during the 2017 cropping year. However, no negative impacts of CC on biomass or yield were observed during the 2015 (corn) and 2016 (soybean) cropping years. Application of P fertilizer increased the concentration of Melich-3 P and total P in the top 0-5 cm of soil compared to CN; however, no differences between P fertilizer management practice were observed for concentrations of Melich-3 P at 5-15 cm. A greenhouse-based study determined the impacts of cover crop species (brassica, grass, and legume), termination method (clipping, freezing, and herbicide), and time after termination (1, 7, and 14 days after termination) on total P and water-extractable P (WEP) release from cover crop biomass. Freezing increased WEP concentration of crop tissue by more than 140% compared to clipping and herbicide. Additionally, at 7 and 14 days after termination, both concentration of WEP and fraction of WEP compared total P increased compared to 1 DAT. Findings from these studies suggest the use of cover crops may unintentionally result in greater DRP losses in surface runoff. However, addition of a cover crop can dramatically reduce erosion losses. In addition, cover crop species selection can directly impact the quantity of P being taken up and released by crop tissue. Understanding the impact of crop species selection may help create new BMPs which aim to reduce P loss.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Agronomy / Dorivar Ruiz Diaz / The appropriate management for phosphorus (P) fertilizer can have significant agronomic, economic, as well as environmental impact. Studies in Kansas have evaluated different management systems to determine best management practices (BMP). The first component of this dissertation is a comprehensive review of tillage system and P fertilizer placement interaction. This review included studies completed in the U.S. Midwest. Results of this review showed greater corn yields with conventional tillage and broadcast applications when soil test P levels (STP) were below 20 mg P kg⁻¹. However, soybean yield was highest in no-till systems with broadcast P fertilizer applications. The second component if this dissertation was a long-term study conducted in Kansas to evaluate the effect of P fertilizer placement on corn and soybean production. Results showed that under strip-tillage, P fertilizer placement significantly affected corn growth, but, seldom resulted in yield response difference among placement methods. Phosphorus application as starter fertilizer at planting showed the most consistent yield response. In addition to the agronomic aspect of this study, the third component of this dissertation consisted of an economic analysis using partial budgets calculated using both fixed and varying prices and costs to compare management practices. With decreased application costs associated with deep banding in strip-tillage system, net returns are greater than broadcast applications. The highest net responses were observed with starter P fertilizer applications. The fourth component of this dissertation included a study evaluating the effects of chelated fertilizer on nutrients, such as P, Fe, Mn, and Zn in soybean. Results from our study showed that both ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA)+P and hydroxyethyl ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (HEDTA)+P resulted in greater concentrations and uptake of Fe and lower Mn uptake in soybean. However, the application of glucoheptonate (GCH)+P had no negative effect on Mn uptake compared to EDTA+P and HEDTA+P. Across locations, EDTA+P and HEDTA+P showed higher yield than GCH+P. The use of long-term studies and comprehensive reviews can provide a unique perspective and better understanding of the most appropriate BMPs for P fertilizer management. Many agronomic and environmental implications of P fertilizer management and the interactions with tillage systems and soils may only become noticeable after multiple years or in a variety of conditions.

Application of phosphorus fertilizer can lead to changes in soil test P and increase both labile and non-labile phosphorus pools. Sequential fractionation showed that the labile (H2O-P and NaHCO3-P) fractions significantly (P < 0.05) increased with the addition of phosphorus fertilizer across all sites. Significant increase was observed in the non-labile (NaOH-P, HCl-P and Residual-P) fractions during the accumulation phase. During the depletion phase, when no further P was added, the accumulated P in the labile P fractions declined but not to the original level. The rates of P application, soil properties, soil test P methods used and time effect all had significant effects on soil test P changes in the extraction experiment. Mehlich-3 extracted the greatest amount of P from the two depths and Olsen-P was intermediate while the smallest amount was extracted with water. The pattern of the rate of change in extractable P with P addition for the 0 – 7.5 cm depth was not site dependent as the results obtained at the different sites were similar. / October 2016

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / David B. Mengel / The increasing price of phosphorus (P) fertilizers has created interest among producers in ways to enhance the efficiency of applied P fertilizers. Research has long focused on increasing phosphorus efficiency through the use of fertilizer placement techniques (banding, strip applications, and in furrow placement with the seed). Recently, various products have been introduced and marketed claiming to increase efficiency of applied P or increase availability of native soil P. The objective of this study was to test the use of two such widely advertised products: Avail®, a long chain, organic polymer created to reduce the fixation of fertilizer P by aluminum and calcium, and JumpStart®, a seed inoculant containing a fungus (Penicillium bailii), which is said to increase the availability of fertilizer and native soil P to plant roots through the colonization of the root system and producing organic acid exudates. This study was conducted at multiple locations across Kansas with corn (Zea mays L.) in 2008 and 2009 and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in 2009. Selected sites varied in soil test P, with a majority of the locations having a Mehlich III P test of < 20mg kg-1, where a P response would be expected. Treatments consisting of P rates from 0 to 20 kg P ha-1 with and without the addition of Avail were applied at planting. At many locations, each of the fertilizer/Avail treatments were planted with and without Jumpstart seed treatment. Plant samples were collected at early and mid-season growth stages. Harvest data consisting of grain yield, grain moisture content at harvest, test weight or bushel weight and grain P content also were collected to measure treatment response. Plant samples for both trials failed to show consistent responses to the addition of either product. Excellent corn grain yields were obtained at seven of eight site years with location averages above 12,500 kg ha-1. One location displayed a significant grain yield response to P in both 2008 and 2009. There were no significant responses to enhancement products where a response to P was seen. At two of the five wheat trials, a significant tissue P response to the addition of P was seen. At one location with very low soil test, 6 mg kg-1, P fertilization increased rate of maturity. No effect on growth or yield at either P responsive or unresponsive sites was seen in wheat due to the use of enhancement products. A series of 20 single replications sites were conducted with the JumpStart product in cooperation with County Extension Agents as a part of wheat variety demonstrations. Analysis of this data showed a significant decrease in wheat yield with the addition of JumpStart in 2009. Overall, this study showed a lower than expected frequency of response to applications of P fertilizer based on soil test and the KSU P fertilizer recommendations. It also showed no response across locations, years and crops to the use of P fertilizer enhancement products.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / Os baixos teores de fÃsforo disponÃveis nos solos tropicais, em geral, requerem permanentes pesquisas com relaÃÃo à eficiÃncia das aplicaÃÃes de diferentes fontes de adubos fosfatados nas culturas cujo objetivo à elevar os teores desse nutriente no solo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo, estudar as respostas do sorgo (Sorghum bicolor) Ãs aplicaÃÃes de diferentes doses e fontes de fÃsforo no que concerne ao crescimento, produÃÃo e remoÃÃo de nutrientes, alÃm de avaliar a eficiÃncia agronÃmica das diferentes fontes. O experimento foi realizado em casa de vegetaÃÃo da Universidade Federal do CearÃ. Foi utilizado o solo da Chapada do Apodi-CE, Cambissolo HÃplico EutÃfico. No presente trabalho foi utilizado o delineamento em blocos inteiramente casualizados, em esquema fatorial 4x4 (doses e fontes de P, respectivamente), sendo os tratamentos composto pela combinaÃÃo de quatro doses de fÃsforo (dose 1 = 0 mg de P kg-1 solo, dose 2 = 100 mg de P kg-1 solo, dose 3 = 200 mg de P kg-1 solo e dose 4 = 300 mg de P kg-1 solo) e quatro fontes de P (Fosfato Industrial Superfosfato Triplo - ST, Fosfato Natural da Bahia - FNB, Fosfato Natural do Tocantins - FNT e Fosfato Natural Reativo â Gafsa â FNR), com 4 repetiÃÃes, totalizando 64 unidades experimentais. Foram avaliadas as seguintes variÃveis: altura da planta, diÃmetro do caule, produÃÃo de matÃria seca da parte aÃrea, e teores foliares de macronutrientes e micronutrientes presentes no sorgo. As variÃveis analisadas foram submetidas à anÃlise de variÃncia (ANOVA), Ãs anÃlises de regressÃo em funÃÃo das fontes e das doses crescentes de fÃsforo e as mÃdias dessas variÃveis foram avaliadas pelo teste de Tukey, a nÃvel de 1% e 5% de probabilidade. O Superfosfato triplo (ST) e o FNB foram as fontes responsÃveis pelas respostas mais altamente significativas das variÃveis biomÃtricas estudadas, enquanto que o FNT apresentou as menores respostas. As fontes que mais contribuÃram para a absorÃÃo de fÃsforo do solo pelo sorgo foram em ordem decrescente: ST > FNB> FNR> FNT. Na dose 300 mg kg-1solo ocorreu a maioria dos valores elevados de absorÃÃo de macronutriente e micronutriente No que concerne Ãs absorÃÃes de macronutrientes e micronutrientes pelo sorgo em funÃÃo das doses e das fontes de fÃsforo usadas, estas ocorreram na seguinte ordem decrescente: N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S; para os micronutrientes, a ordem foi: Mn > Fe > Zn > Cu. A fonte que apresentou o melhor Ãndice de EficiÃncia AgronÃmica foi o Superfosfato triplo (ST), seguido do FNB. / The low available phosphorus in tropical soils generally require constant research regarding the efficiency and the application of different sources of phosphate fertilizers on crops. This work aimed to study the responses of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) to applications of different levels and sources of phosphorus in terms of growth, yield and nutrient removal, and also to evaluate the agronomic efficiency of these different sources. The experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions at the Federal University of CearÃ, Brazil. It was used a Cambisol soil from the Chapada do Apodi-CE. The statistical design consisted of a randomized complete block in a 4x4 factorial (rates and sources of P, respectively), with treatments consisting of a combination of four rates of phosphorus (rate 1 = 0 mg P kg-1 soil, rate 2 = 100 mg P kg-1 soil, rate 3 = 200 mg kg-1, rate 4 = 300 mg P kg-1 soil) with 4 replicates, totalizing 64 experimental units; it was used four sources of P (Phosphate Industrial Triple superphosphate - TS, Natural Phosphate of Bahia - NFB, Natural Phosphate of Tocantins - NPT and Natural Reactive phosphate - Gafsa - NRP). The following variables were evaluated: plant height, stem diameter, dry shoot matter production and, macronutrients and micronutrients leaf concentrations. The variables value results were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), regression analysis according to sources and increasing rates of phosphorus; the averages of these variables were evaluated by the Tukey test at 5% probability. The TS and the NFB sources were responsible for the higher significant responses of the biometric variables studied, whereas NPT induced the lowest responses. The sources that contributed most to the plant absorption of soil phosphorus by sorghum were in descending order: TS > NFB > NRP > NPT. In the rate 300 mg kg-1solo occurred the most elevated macronutrient and micronutrient plant P uptake. Considering the amounts of macronutrients and micronutrients absorbed by sorghum, in function of rates and P sources, these occurred in the following order: N > K > Ca > Mg > P > S (macronutrients); Mn > Fe > Zn > Cu (micronutrients). The source that had the highest index of Agronomic Efficiency was the Triple superphosphate, followed by the Natural phosphate of Bahia.

MSCAGR (Plant Production) / Department of Plant Production / Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) is adapted to cool-seasons and its organs are of high nutritive value and serve as cheap sources of protein, especially in developing countries. Chickpea crop is mainly grown for human consumption, animal feed and for medicinal purposes. The introduction and promotion of chickpea to especially small-scale South African crop farmers has multiple objectives including the improvement of soil fertility. Small-scale farmer’s flounder to afford Nfertilizers, coupled with the challenges faced by programmes aimed at assisting them about soil fertility in their cropping fields that are still without enough N concentration to meet N demand. It is therefore important that other alternatives that can help improve the N status of soils be explored. The shoot δ13C is an indicator of WUE in C3 plants. However, shoot-WUE is affected by a variety of factors including genotypes, phosphorus fertilizer application and availability of native or introduced rhizobial bacteria. However, not much is known on whether application of phosphate fertilizer, seed inoculation with rhizobial strain affect the shoot C/N ratio of chickpea genotypes in South Africa. Therefore, field experiments were established at Thohoyandou and Syferkuil in Limpopo to assess the role of phosphorus fertilization and rhizobial inoculation on C assimilation, C/N ratio and shoot-WUE of chickpea genotypes. Field experiments were conducted during winter season in 2016 and 2017 (April to August). Treatments consisted of a factorial combination of two rates of phosphorus fertilizer (0 and 90 kg P ha-1 ), four desi chickpea genotypes (ACC#1, ACC#2, ACC#3 and ACC#5) and two rhizobial inoculation levels (bradyrhizobium strain and without rhizobial strain. In Thohoyandou, ACC#1 showed greater grain yield in 2016 and 2017. Which was associated with more branches and greater plant height. Furthermore, the interaction between genotypes, phosphorus fertilizer and rhizobial inoculation had significant effect on grain yield in 2016. ACC#1, 3 and 5 of chickpea genotypes fixed the most N compared to that of ACC#2. In addition, ACC#5 had the highest soil N-uptake in both seasons followed by ACC#3, while ACC#1 had the least value of soil N-uptake in both seasons. Phosphorus fertilizer application increased the fixation of N by 36.8% (P≤0.01), and similarly in soil N-uptake by difference of 59.9% compared to control in 2016. Furthermore, rhizobial inoculation increased N-fixed in 2016 and soil N-uptake in both seasons. ACC#5 had the highest N fixed at phosphorus-fertilized with bradyrhizobuim across two locations in both seasons. ACC#5 depended more on soil N-uptake than fixing its own N as compared to ACC#1. N fixation differed across seasons; however, ACC#3 had greater N-fixed in both locations. Moreover, chickpea genotype that fixed more N had least δ15N. This finding indicates that N fixation is exhibited by the genotypes that depend less on δ15N, because N2 fixation is inhibited by high soil N concentration or δ15N. Furthermore, ACC#2 and ACC#3 had greater δ13C at Thohoyandou in 2017; chickpea genotypes had significant effect on δ13C at P≤0.05 at Thohoyandou, 2016. The results showed that ACC#1 with phosphorus fertilizer application and no bradyrhizobium strain showed greater δ13C. Also, δ13C increased with a decrease in N-fixed (r=.1000), this indicates that there was a functional relationship between plant WUE and N fixation in chickpea, probably because improved water use in legumes supports N fixation. / NRF

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