No description available.

In this doctoral thesis, we have studied the oxidation of carboxylic acids to obtain the corresponding acyloxy radicals, using visible light and non-toxic and inexpensive organic dyes, as photocatalysts. On the one hand, we study the photooxidation of aromatic carboxylic acids to obtain acyloxy radicals, whose decarboxylation is relatively slow (Chapter I and Chapter II). On the other hand, we describe the photooxidation of aliphatic carboxylic acids, to take advantage of the rapid decarboxylation of the corresponding acyloxy radicals, to generate nucleophilic radicals that were trapped by different reagents (Chapter III to Chapter V). It should be noted that all the protocols are free of expensive and toxic noble metals, the reactions were promoted with visible light at room temperature and the scalability of some reactions was demonstrated in batch conditions or using flow chemistry. In addition, mechanistic studies were carried out to propose plausible photocatalytic routes to all the reactions studied.

Nitrogen is a vital element for the existence of life, as shown by its frequent presence in essential biomolecules, and inclusion into valuable drugs. Sulfonamides and their heterocycle counterpart, sultams, are N-containing functional groups and metabolically stable amide isosteres. Sulfa drugs, which contain these moieties, have a broad spectrum of medical applications. The industrial value of sultams has prompted the development of novel methods for their synthesis, and metal-catalyzed C-H amination reactions with nitrene precursors have recently shown promise. The current thesis presents a survey of conditions for benzo[d]sultam synthesis via intramolecular C-H amination of N-acyloxysulfonamides. Initially, using Ru(Bpy)3(PF6)2 as a photocatalyst and Et3N as a base enabled benzo[d]sultam formation by tertiary C-H amidation. The photoredox conditions were optimized to accommodate other 2,6-disubstituted-N-acyloxysulfonamides upon omission of the base, which consistently gave sulfonamide byproducts. Control reactions indicated that a thermal base-induced reaction was simultaneously occurring, both enabling productive C-H amidation and byproduct formation. Systematic optimization of base-induced conditions enabled sultam synthesis from 2,6-dialkyl- and tertiary ortho-monoalkyl-precursors in moderate yield, but sulfonamide formation still impeded the reaction.   An additional control reaction indicated that a thermal Ruthenium-catalyzed C-H amidation reaction was possible. Indeed, heating N-acyloxysulfonamides in the presence of Ru(Bpy)3(PF6)2 and in the absence of light and base enabled efficient C-H amidation, particularly with DCE as a solvent. A representative scope of 12 benzo[d]sultams was then synthesized including entries derived from ortho-monoalkyl-N-acyloxyarylsulfonamides. Aside from optimizing an efficient reaction for the synthesis of benzo[d]sultams through the cyclization of N-acyloxyarylsulfonamides, including the challenging primary C-H amidation of orthomonomethyl-substrates, the unique reaction conditions developed in this thesis set precedent for future investigation of hydroxylamine derived nitrene precursors. The optimization and design of superior ruthenium catalysts could allow for more challenging C-H amination reactions with hydroxysulfonamide derivatives and similar N-oxy nitrene precursors.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第23925号 / 工博第5012号 / 新制||工||1782(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科合成・生物化学専攻 / (主査)教授 村上 正浩, 教授 杉野目 道紀, 教授 中尾 佳亮 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM

The aim of my Ph.D. thesis is to summarize my research on the development of ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of O-carboxyanhydrides (OCAs) to synthesize functionalized, degradable polyesters. Biodegradable polyesters are promising alternatives to conventional petroleum-based non-degradable polyolefins and they are widely used in everyday applications ranging from clothing and packaging to agriculture and biomedicine. Commercially available polyesters, such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), poly(lactic acid), and polycaprolactone, hydrolyze in physicochemical media. They have been approved by FDA and widely used for medical applications. However, the lack of side-chain functionality in polyesters and in corresponding monomers greatly plagues their utility for applications that demand physicochemical properties such as high stiffness, tensile strength and elasticity. Increasing efforts have been devoted to the introduction of pendant groups along the polymer chain in order to modify and modulate the physicochemical properties of polyesters and thereby to expand their applications. Over the last decade, OCAs have emerged as an alternative class of highly active monomers for polyester polymerization. OCAs are prepared from amino acids and thus have a richer range of side chain functionalities than lactone or lactide. Like lactones, OCAs can undergo ROP to obtain polyesters. Unfortunately, current ROP methods, especially those involving organocatalysts, result in uncontrolled polymerization including epimerization for OCAs bearing electron-withdrawing groups, unpredictable molecular weights (MWs), or slow polymerization kinetics. Based on our recent success of Ni/Ir photoredox catalysis allowing for rapid synthesis of high-MWs polyesters, we further explore new polymerization chemistry to use earth-abundant metal complexes to replace expensive rare-earth metal photocatalysts, and practice the polymerization in moderate and energy-efficient reaction conditions. This thesis introduces novel photoredox and electrochemical earth-abundant metal catalysts that overcome above difficulties in the ROP chemistry of OCAs, and allow for the preparation of stereoregular polyesters bearing abundant side-chain functionalities in a highly controlled manner. Specifically, various highly active metal complexes have been developed for stereoselective ROP of OCAs, either using light or electricity, to synthesize syndiotactic or stereoblock copolymers with different thermal properties. Additionally, simple purification protocols of OCAs have also been initially studied, which potentially paves the way to bulk production of functional monomers. In this thesis, I first describe newly-developed photoredox Co/Zn catalysts to achieve a controlled ROP of enantiopure OCAs under mild reaction conditions (Chapter 2). Such discovery is extended to the combination use of Co catalysts with various Zn/Hf complexes that enable stereoselective controlled ROP of racemic OCAs for the preparation of stereoregular polyesters (Chapter 3). The mechanistic studies of the aforementioned developments lead to the application of such a catalytic system in controlled electrochemical ROP of OCAs (Chapter 4). Such chemistry can also be translated to stereoselectively electrochemical ROP of racemic OCAs to either syndiotactic or stereoblock polyesters, allowing precise control of polyester's tacticity and sequence (Chapter 5). An overview future work has been summarized (Chapter 6). / Doctor of Philosophy / Polyesters are widely used in everyday applications ranging from clothing and packaging to agriculture and biomedicine. Different from conventional unrecyclable plastics, polyesters are usually biocompatible and biodegradable, and can be synthesized from renewable resources. A few commercially available polyesters have been approved by FDA and widely used for medical applications. However, their utility for applications that demand various mechanical and chemical properties is greatly limited by the lack of side-chain functional groups in polyesters and in their monomers—lactones. Increasing efforts have been devoted to the introduction of pendant groups along the polymer chain in order to modify and modulate the desired properties of polyesters and thereby to expand their applications. Over the last decade, O-carboxyanhydrides (OCAs) have emerged as an alternative class of highly active monomers for polyester polymerization. OCAs can be prepared from renewable source amino acids and thus have a richer range of side chain functional groups. Like lactones, OCAs can undergo ring-opening polymerization (ROP). Unfortunately, current ROP methods usually result in uncontrolled polymerization of OCAs including loss of stereoregularity, unpredictable molecular weights, or slow polymerization rate. To address the above-described polymer chemistry and materials challenges, I have been motivated to develop a new polymer chemistry knowledge base when starting my Ph.D. program. I was first involved in the development of a controlled photoredox polymerization of OCAs produces polyesters with various side chain functional groups. By using photoredox Ni/Zn/Ir catalysts, stereoregular high molecular weight polyesters can be synthesized from racemic OCAs in a rapid, controlled manner. However, this catalytic system has to be used at -20 °C despite so successful in preparing stereoblock polyesters. Encouraged by our recent success in this area, I started to work on the discovery of other transition metal complexes such as the Co complexes used in N-carboxyanhydride polymerization. Ultimately, innovative photoredox Co/Zn catalysts has been successfully developed, and applied to our protocol to achieve the controlled ROP of enantiopure OCAs under mild reaction condition (Chapter 2). The Co catalyst can replace both Ni and Ir in aforementioned photoredox system. Meanwhile, the combination of Co catalysts and various Zn/Hf complexes has also been developed to undergo photoredox ROP of racemic OCAs to efficiently produce polyesters with different microstructures (Chapter 3). Although photoredox ROP is an efficient method for synthesizing degradable polyesters, great decrease in photonic flux with the depth of the reaction medium makes it less energy efficient compared to electricity. Therefore, we then extended our protocol to electrochemical reaction, which is one of the most energy-efficient chemical reactions. The newly identified Co/Zn catalytic system can be activated by electric current to mediate rapid electrochemical ROP (eROP) of enantiopure OCAs, allowing for the synthesis of isotactic polyesters in a highly controlled manner (Chapter 4). Additionally, stereoselective eROP of racemic OCAs has been firstly achieved by using various combinations of Co and Zn/Hf complexes (Chapter 5). In summary, my research produces unique and transformative insights into the innovative photoredox and electrochemical ROP mediated by metal catalysts. Given the importance and versatility of biodegradable and biocompatible polyester materials, the chemistry invented by our team can be expected to serve as a new platform for various applications in material and biomedical engineering.

Ce projet scientifique concerne le développement de nouvelles méthodes efficaces de fonctionnalisation d’imines par des procédés organocatalysés et photocatalysésDans un premier temps la réaction photocatalysée d’alkylation d’énamines en conditions douces à été étudiée. L’utilisation de photocatalyseurs sous forme de complexes organométalliques d’Iridium a permis de réaliser la double fonctionnalisation d’ènecarbamates, permettant ainsi d’obtenir des substituts d’imines hautement substitués. Ce procédé permet de s’affranchir de l’utilisation de métaux lourds et ne nécessite qu’une activation par la lumière visible pour fonctionner. Cette transformation radicalaire éco-compatible à par la suite été soumise à une étude mécanistique approfondie. Dans une deuxième partie, la réaction d’aza-Friedel-Crafts organocatalysée par des acides de Brønsted chiraux à été étudiée. Dans cette réaction, la bi-fonctionnalité des acides chiraux dérivés du BINOL a été exploitée. Elle permet l’addition énantiosélective d’une grande variété d’indoles substitués sur des acyl-pyrrolidinones générées in situ. Les composés synthétisés présentent des structures bioactives intéressantes notamment sur le système nerveux central.Enfin, la première réaction de Povarov asymétrique impliquant des amino-hétérocycles comme précurseurs de 2-azadiènes à été décrite. Cette étude s’appuie sur des travaux antérieurs du laboratoire et permet la synthèse des analogues hétérocycliques de tétrahydroquinoléines précédemment décrites. Le procédé met en jeu une séquence multicomposants réduction/Povarov catalysée par des acides phosphoriques chiraux et permet l’accès rapide à une large bibliothèque d’analogues. / The aim of this study is the development of new methodologies for imines functionalization by organocatalysed and photocatalysed processes.First, a photocatalysed alkylation reaction of enecarbamates have been described. The use of organometallic Iridium complexes allowed the double functionalization of enecarbamates leading to highly substituted imines surrogates. This process is a green alternative to the use of heavy metals and only needs visible light as an renewable energy source to proceed. This environment-friendly radical transformation has been submitted to mechanistic study.In a second part, an aza-Friedel-Crafts reaction organocatalysed by chiral Brønsted acid has been studied. The bi-fonctionnality of chiral phosphoric acids has been advantageously used to perform the Friedel-Crafts addition of various substituted indole to in situ generated acyl-iminium ions. The compounds obtained by this methodology are showing interesting biological activities on central nervous system. Finally, the first enantioselective Povarov reaction involving amino-heterocycles as 2-azadienes precursors has been reported. This reaction is based on previous lab reports and the synthesis of tetrahydroquinoline analogues has been described. The multicomponent reduction/Povarov reaction sequence catalyzed by chiral phosphoric acids derived gives a rapid access to a wide library of bioactives analogues.

Dans le cadre de la synthèse totale de la leucophyllidine, un alcaloïde bis-indolique, des réactions de carbo- et sulfonyl-cyanation radicalaires sans étain ont été développées. Les cyanures de sulfonyle RSO2CN, préparés à partir des thiocyanates correspondant par une nouvelle méthode d’oxydation, sont utilisés comme pièges radicalaires. Ces réactifs fragmentent en présence d’initiateur thermique (carbo-cyanation) ou par le biais de la catalyse photoredox (sulfonyl-cyanation). Dans ce dernier cas, une étude mécanistique approfondie sur le cycle photo-catalytique a été accomplie. Ces méthodologies introduisent un nitrile sur une chaîne carbonée insaturée par voie radicalaire, fournissant des intermédiaires avancés pour la synthèse totale d’alcaloïdes. Pour la synthèse asymétrique de l’eucophylline, le fragment sud de la leucophyllidine, la sulfonyl-cyanation de cyclobutènes énantioenrichis a montré d’excellentes diastéréosélectivités. Différentes stratégies d’ouverture de cycle ont ensuite été examinées. / During our efforts directed toward the total synthesis of leucophyllidine, a bis-indole alkaloid, the tin-free radical carbo-cyanation and sulfonyl-cyanation of olefins were developed. The sulfonyl cyanides, acting as radical traps, were synthesized through a new oxidation of the corresponding thiocyanate. These reagents were found to fragment under thermal initiation (carbo-cyanation) or using the photoredox catalysis (sulfonyl-cyanation). A thorough mechanistic study was accomplished for the sulfonyl-cyanation. These methodologies install a nitrile onto an olefin backbone, furnishing advanced intermediates for the total synthesis of alkaloids. For the asymmetric synthesis of eucophylline, the south fragment of leucophyllidine, the sulfonyl-cyanation of optically pure cyclobutenes showed excellent diastereoselectivities. Different ring-opening reactions of the corresponding cyclobutane were then examined.

Arylsubstituierte Cycloheptatriene unterscheiden sich in ihrer Lichtabsorption, Molekülgeometrie und Elektronen- Donatorstärke gravierend von den korrespondierenden Aryltropyliumionen. Die Änderung der elektronischen Eigenschaften bei der Umwandlung der Arylcycloheptatrien- in die Aryltropyliumspezies ist daher potentiell nutzbar, um nichtkovalente Bindungskräfte in supramolekularen Einheiten mit Cycloheptatrienbausteinen zu beeinflussen. Licht stellt als ein energetisch und mit hoher örtlicher Auflösung selektiv anwendbares Reagenz ein besonders interessantes Werkzeug für die Verwirklichung solcher Schaltprozesse dar. Dies setzt jedoch Kenntnisse über photochemische Methoden der Erzeugung und Reduktion von Aryltropyliumionen und Einblicke in die Reaktionsmechanismen voraus. Die lichtinduzierte Generierung von stabilen Aryltropyliumionen wurde auf verschiedenen Wegen unter Nutzu ng zweier Klassen von Cycloheptatrienderivaten, der Arylcycloheptatriene und der Arylbicycloheptatriene, erreicht. Detaillierte Studien des Redoxverhaltens der Modellverbindungen wurden mit Hilfe von Stationärphotolysen, elektrochemischen Untersuchungen sowie durch Detektion von Intermediaten mittels ESR- und zeitaufgelöster Absorptionsspektroskopie angefertigt. Demnach erfordert die unter formalem Hydridtransfer verlaufende Photooxidation der Arylcycloheptatriene zu den korrespondierenden Aryltropyliumionen den Ablauf einer Sequenz aus photoinduziertem Elektronentransfer (PET), Deprotonierung der Cycloheptatrienradikalkationen und Grund zustandsoxidation der resultierenden Cycloheptatrienylradikale. Während die Energiebilanz des PET selbst in Gegenwart schwacher Elektronenakzeptoren stark negativ ist, bestimmt die Natur der Arylsubstituenten den weiteren Reaktionsverlauf. Entscheidend ist einerseits, daß die Deprotonierung der Arylcycloheptatrienradikalkationen mit dem thermodynamisch begünstigten Rückelektronentransfer (BET) konkurrieren kann und andererseits, daß die durch Deprotonierung gebildeten Arylcycloheptatrienylradikale im Grundzustand durch den verwendeten Akzeptor oxidiert werden. Eine hinsichtlich der Produkt- und Quantenausbeuten sehr effiziente Methode stellt die sensibilisierte Photooxidation in Gegenwart sehr starker Grundzustandselektronenakzeptoren, wie etwa Triplettsauerstoff oder Benzochinon, dar. Die Aktivierung der Arylbicycloheptatriene kann via PET oder durch photochemische Homolyse der zentralen C-C-Bindung erfolgen. Die im ersten Fall gebildeten Bicycloheptatrienradikalkationen fragmentieren mit hoher Geschwindigkeit unter Bildung eines Tropyliumions und eines Cycloheptatrienylradikals. Unabhängig von der Art der Photoreaktion stellt somit die Grundzustandsoxidation der Cycloheptatrienylradikale den Schlüsselschritt auf dem Wege der Generierung der Aryltropyliumionen dar. Mit Hilfe starker Akzeptoren, z.B. N-Methyl-acridiniumperchlorat oder weniger stabilisierten Tropyliumionen, lassen sich die Arylbicycloheptatriene oxidieren. Die Photoreduktion der Aryltropyliumionen ist in Gegenwart von Hydrid- und Zweielektronendonatoren möglich. Entgegen den Erwartungen werden auch in Gegenwart der Hydriddonatoren die Arylbicycloheptatriene erhalten. Als Grund hierfür kann das Ausbleiben der Protonierung der intermediär gebildeten Arylcycloheptatrienylradikale angesehen werden. Prinzipiell ist daher ein photochemisches Schalten zwischen den Redoxpartnern Aryltropyliumion und Arylbicycloheptatrien möglich. Ein Beispiel hierfür stellt das System N- Methyl- acridiniumion/Bis(4-Dimethylamino-phenyl) bicycloheptatrien bzw. 4-Dimethylamino- phenyltropyliumion/ 10,10'-Dimethyl-9,9'- tetrahydrobiacridinyl dar. Die Richtung der photochemisch induzierten Redoxreaktion (Oxidation des Arylbicycloheptatriens bzw. Reduktion des Tropyliumsalzes) wird hierbei bestimmt durch die Konzentrationsverhältnisse der Reaktanden. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse stellt die vorliegende Arbeit eine Basis für künftige Untersuchungen von lichtinduzierten Schaltprozessen in supramolekularen Aggregaten dar. / Compared with their corresponding tropylium ions, arylsubstituted cycloheptatrienes possess quite different behaviour in light absorption, shape and electronic donor strength. Therefore, those redox couples are useful candidates for influencing non-covalent bonding within supramolecular units, containing cycloheptatriene building blocks. The tool light was chosen due to its characteristics such as high energetic selectivity and even high optical resolution, to reach this goal. The planned light driven switching requires new photochemical methods of generation and reduction of the aryltropylium ions as well as insight in their mechanistic details. The photochemical formation of stable aryltropylium ions has been reached on different pathways using two classes of cycloheptatriene derivativs, the arylcycloheptatrienes and the arylbitropyls, respectively. The redox behaviour of the model compounds was subject of detailed studies by means of stationary photolysis and electrochemical measurements. The EPR and the time resolved absorption spectroscopy have been utilized to get further information about the electronic structure and reactivity of short-living species involved in the phototransformation. Accordingly, the photooxidation of arylcycloheptatrienes is possible in a sequence consisting of photoinduced electron transfer (PET), followed by deprotonation of the cycloheptatriene radical cations and subsequent oxidation of the resulting cycloheptatriene type radicals in the ground state (overall hydride transfer). Due to the fast PET, even in the presence of weak electron acceptors, the success of the reaction course depends on the nature of the aryl substituents. On one hand, the deprotonation step has to compete with the energetically favoured back electron transfer (BET). On the other hand, the used acceptors must be able to oxidize the cycloheptatrienyl type radicals. With regard to chemical and quantum yields, t he most efficient procedure is the sensitized photooxidation in the presence of strong ground state oxidants, such as dioxygen or benzoquinone. The photochemical activation of the arylbitropyls is either possible via PET or by homolytic cleavage of the central C-C-bond (direct excitation). The bitropyl radical cations resulting from the PET are subjected to a fast fragmentation process yielding tropylium ions and cycloheptatriene type radicals.Therefore, the ground state oxidation of the latter is the key-step in the photooxidation of arylbitropyls. Acco rdingly, strong acceptors such as acridinium ions or even weaker stabilized tropylium ions are capable to transform the bitropyls into tropylium ions. The photoreduction of the aryl tropylium ions can be achieved by using hydride or two electron donors. It is noteworthy that the arylbitropyls are the photo-products even in the presence of hydride donors. Evidently, this effect is caused by the impossible proton transfer between the donor radical cations and the cycloheptatriene type radicals. Therefore, the light induced switching is possible in the redox couple arylbitropyl and aryl tropylium ion. The system N-methylacridinium ion /bis (4-dimethylaminophenyl)bitropyl and 10,10'-dimethyl-9,9'-tetrahydrobiacridinyl / 4-dimethylaminophenyl tropylium ion should be announced in this context. Hereby, the direction of this photoinduced redox reaction (oxidation of the bitropyl or reduction of the tropylium ion) depends on the concentrations of the reactands. The present work should be understand as a basis for future research dealing with light driven molecular machines.

No description available.

The discovery and mechanistic investigation of a new class of photochemical reactions of benzophenones and related compounds is documented in this Thesis. Their photobehaviour in aqueous solvent media varied dramatically from their well-known behaviour in organic solvents and suggests unique and unprecedented mechanistic pathways. The aqueous photoredox chemistry of various substituted benzophenones was initially explored. Particular attention was paid to 3-(hydroxymethyl)benzophenone (47), which upon photolysis in acidic aqueous media undergoes an intramolecular photoredox reaction to produce 3-formylbenzhydrol (61). Extensive investigation into the mechanistic behaviour of 3-(hydroxymethyl)benzophenone (47) produced evidence of a unique solvent-mediated, acid catalysed photoreaction. A mechanism has been proposed for the intramolecular photoredox reaction that proceeds via the protonated triplet state. This protonated triplet state subsequently promotes the deprotonation of the benzylic carbon before rearranging to form the redox product. The modification of the benzylic carbon with an alkyl group or with a phenyl group resulted in only slight changes in the photobehaviour. In both cases intramolecular photoredox reactions were observed although significantly more oligomeric side products were observed in some cases. To more fully elucidate the photobehaviour and to test the generality of the photoredox reaction, a variety of structurally related hydroxyalkyl aromatic carbonyls were synthesized and studied. Alternative chromophores were explored using xanthone and fluorenone derivatives. Both types of derivative compounds underwent an intramolecular photoredox reaction, supporting the assertion that the intramolecular photoredox reaction could be considered a general feature of aromatic carbonyls under aqueous conditions. However, significant differences in photoreactivity were also observed. It was found that 2-(hydroxymethyl)xanthone (53) exhibited sufficient photoactivity that the intramolecular photoredox reaction was observable even under neutral conditions whereas 2-(hydroxymethyl)fluorenone (54) was nearly photoinert. The last topic focuses on the extension of the electronic transmission from the carbonyl functional group to the benzylic alcohol by insertion of an additional phenyl group. The addition of the phenyl group also provided a bichromophoric molecule, rather than the monochromophoric substrates studied to this point. The substituent’s position played an important role in the photobehaviour, in that both of the meta- and ortho- substituted compounds underwent intramolecular photoredox reaction, while the para- substituted compound primarily exhibited photobehaviour indicative of hydrogen abstraction.