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We are surrounded by enormous amounts of ambient mechanical energy that goes to waste such as rain drops, human footfalls, air flow, ocean waves, just to name a few. If such otherwise wasted mechanical energy can be effective converted into electricity, self-powered electronics are very likely to be realized, which can address the limitations of traditional power supplies in many cases, such as wireless sensor networks. Here in this work, two types of energy-harvesting nanogenerators (NGs) based were studied. For piezoelectric nanogenerators, zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires (NWs) were used as building blocks to develop integrated NGs based on a number of ZnO NWs instead of a single NW. Two types of integrated NGs were developed, which consist of lateral NW arrays and vertical NW arrays. The electric output power was substantially enhanced compared to the design with a single NW. For triboelectric nanogenerators, triboelectric effect was innovatively used as an effective means of harvesting mechanical energy. The operating principle can be explained by the coupling between triboelectric and electrostatic effect. Two types of operating modes were invented, i.e. contact mode and sliding mode. Triggered by commonly available ambient mechanical energy such as footfalls, the maximum output power reached up to 1.2 W. More importantly, self-powered systems were built by using the NG as a power source. It can provide real time power for up to 600 commercial LED bulbs. This research not only provides the fundamentals for NGs but also demonstrates the practicability of using the self-powered technology in our daily life.

With the looming energy crisis compounded by the global economic downturn there is an urgent need to increase energy efficiency and to discover new energy sources. An approach to solve this problem is to improve the efficiency of aerodynamic vehicles by using active flow control tools such as synthetic jet actuators. These devices are able to reduce fuel consumption and streamlined vehicle design by reducing drag and weight, and increasing maneuverability. Hence, the main goal of this dissertation is to study factors that affect the efficiency of synthetic jets by incorporating energy harvesting into actuator design using prestressed piezoelectric composites. Four state-of-the-art piezoelectric composites were chosen as active diaphragms in synthetic jet actuators. These composites not only overcome the inherent brittle and fragile nature of piezoelectric materials but also enhance domain movement which in turn enhances intrinsic contributions. With these varying characteristics among different types of composites, the intricacies of the synthetic jet design and its implementation increases. In addition the electrical power requirements of piezoelectric materials make the new SJA system a coupled multiphysics problem involving electro–mechanical and structural–fluid interactions. Due to the nature of this system, a design of experiments approach, a method of combining experiments and statistics, is utilized. Geometric and electro-mechanical factors are investigated using a fractional factorial design with peak synthetic jet velocity as a response variable. Furthermore, energy generated by the system oscillations is harvested with a prestressed composite and a piezo-polymer. Using response surface methodology the process is optimized under different temperatures and pressures to simulate harsh environmental conditions. Results of the fractional factorial experimental design showed that cavity dimensions and type of signal used to drive the synthetic jet actuator were statistically significant factors when studying peak jet velocity. The Bimorph (~50m/s) and the prestressed metal composite (~45m/s) generated similar peak jet velocities but the later is the most robust of all tested actuators. In addition, an alternate input signal to the composite, a sawtooth waveform, leads to jets formed with larger peak velocities at frequencies above 15Hz. The optimized factor levels for the energy harvesting process were identified as 237.6kPa, 3.7Hz, 1MΩ and 12°C and the power density measured at these conditions was 24.27µW/mm3. Finally, the SJA is integrated with an energy harvesting system and the power generated is stored into a large capacitor and a rechargeable battery. After approximately six hours of operation 5V of generated voltage is stored in a 330µF capacitor with the prestressed metal composite as the harvester. It is then demonstrated that energy harvested from the inherent vibrations of a SJA can be stored for later use. Then, the system proposed in this dissertation not only improves on the efficiency of aerodynamic bodies, but also harvests energy that is otherwise wasted.

Um material piezocompósito é resultante da combinação de um material piezelétrico com outros materiais não-piezelétricos, oferecendo vantagens substanciais em relação aos materiais piezelétricos convencionais. Diferentes propriedades efetivas podem ser obtidas alterando-se a fração de volume dos constituintes ou a própria topologia da célula unitária do piezocompósito. Materiais com Gradação Funcional (MGF) são materiais compósitos avançados, projetados de tal forma que sua composição varie gradualmente numa direção espacial. A vantagem do conceito MGF é não apresentar interface convencional entre os materiais da inclusão e da matriz, reduzindo assim um problema comum em materiais compósitos laminados, como por exemplo, o surgimento de concentração de tensões mecânicas. O Método de Otimização Topológica (MOT) é uma técnica computacional utilizada para se determinar a distribuição de materiais em uma estrutura ou material de forma sistemática, a fim de se extremizar uma determinada função objetivo. Assim, esse trabalho propõe uma metodologia sistemática e genérica para o projeto de materiais piezocompósitos com gradação funcional (MPGF) utilizando o MOT, tanto para aplicações quasi-estáticas, quanto para aplicações dinâmicas. Dessa forma, divide-se o projeto de materiais piezocompósitos em três grupos. O primeiro grupo consiste em um método de projeto de materiais baseado na combinação do método de homogeneização com o MOT para o projeto de MPGF para aplicações quasi-estáticas, onde o objetivo é projetar materiais piezocompósitos que, de modo geral, maximizem a conversão de energia mecânica em elétrica. A aplicação utilizada como exemplo neste trabalho são materiais empregados em dispositivos de coleta de energia. O segundo grupo visa aplicações dinâmicas de materiais piezocompósitos fonônicos, onde a propriedade de interesse é a possibilidade de se ter faixas de frequência, mais conhecidas por band gaps, nas quais ondas elásticas não se propagam. Assim, neste estudo visa-se o projeto de MPGF fonônicos com largura e posição de band gaps prescritos, empregando estruturas unidimensionais, e a maximização de diversos band gaps, empregando estruturas bidimensionais. O terceiro grupo explora o conceito de gradação geométrica, baseado em repetições de padrão ao longo do domínio de projeto, porém cada repetição tem um ou mais comprimentos modificados, de forma gradual. Dessa forma, suas propriedades alteram-se progressivamente ao longo da estrutura, embora a distribuição de materiais seja discreta, contornando assim possíveis dificuldades de manufatura. Esta abordagem é empregada visando à aplicação na coleta de energia, onde se procura maximizar a potência elétrica gerada em um resistor acoplado aos eletrodos, através da obtenção da topologia otimizada de estruturas piezocompósitas. Exemplos numéricos são apresentados de forma a ilustrar as metodologias de projeto propostas, bem como, analisar a influência dos parâmetros de otimização nos resultados. / Piezocomposite materials result from the combination of a piezoelectric material with other non-piezoelectric materials, offering advantages over conventional piezoelectric materials. Different effective properties can be obtained by changing the volume fraction of constituent materials, the shape of inclusions, or even the topology of the unit cell. Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) are composite materials, which are designed so that its composition varies gradually in space. One of the advantages of FGMs is that there is no conventional interface between the constituent materials, which reduces, for instance, microscopic stress concentration problems in composite materials. Topology Optimization Method (TOM) is a computational technique used to determine the material distribution of a structure or material in a systematic way, in order to maximize a determined objective function. Thus, this study proposes a generic and systematic methodology to design Functionally Graded Piezocomposites Materials (FGPM) using TOM, for quasi-static and dynamic applications. The study is divided into three groups. The first group combines the homogenization method with TOM in order to design FGPM for quasi-static applications, where the goal is to maximize the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy. The application used as an example in this study focuses materials used in energy harvesting devices. The second group focuses on dynamic applications of phononic piezocomposite materials, where the property of interest is the possibility of having frequency band gaps, in which elastic waves do not propagate. This study aims to design phononic FGPM with prescribed band gap width using one-dimensional model, and to design phononic FGPM with maximized band gaps using two-dimensional model. The third group investigates the pattern gradation concept, based on pattern repetitions over the design domain, but each pattern has one or more dimensions gradually modified. Thus, properties change gradually along the structure, although the material distribution keeps in the discrete form, thereby circumventing potential manufacturing difficulties. The objective function consists of maximizing the electric power generated in a load resistor. A projection scheme is employed to compute the element densities from design variables and control the length scale of the material density. Numerical examples are presented and discussed using the proposed methods.

O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar materiais piezelétricos compósitos com conectividade 1-3 e 2-2 para aplicações em transdutores de ultra-som na faixa de MHz utilizando modelos matemáticos e verificações experimentais. O estudo de um material piezelétrico compósito pode ser feito através de seus três principais tipos de modos de vibração: modo planar, modo de espessura e modo lateral. Neste trabalho, é utilizado o método dos elementos finitos para modelar os modos planares, de espessura e laterais de um compósito, e modelos analíticos para modelar o modo de espessura e o modo lateral. A modelagem do modo de espessura de um transdutor de ultra-som é feita a partir de um modelo analítico unidimensional. A modelagem unidimensional de um transdutor de ultra-som é feita através do cálculo das propriedades efetivas do material piezelétrico compósito. Essas propriedades são utilizadas no modelo da matriz distribuída para prever a impedância elétrica de um compósito e a resposta impulsiva de um transdutor de ultra-som. Com o objetivo de validar os modelos, foram construídos um material piezelétrico compósito com conectividade 1-3 e outro com conectividade 2-2 através da técnica “dice-and-fill", utilizando cerâmica de PZT-5A e resina epóxi. O compósito com conectividade 1-3 foi utilizado na construção de um transdutor de ultra-som. Os resultados teóricos da impedância elétrica e da resposta impulsiva são comparados com os obtidos experimentalmente. A impedância elétrica experimental é obtida através de um analisador de impedâncias, enquanto que a resposta impulsiva experimental do eco do transdutor é medida acoplando o protótipo do transdutor a um tarugo de acrílico. Devido à periodicidade do compósito foi feito um estudo teórico da propagação de ondas mecânicas em meios periódicos, mostrando que existem determinadas faixas de freqüências que não se propagam no material. Foi verificado que esta periodicidade é responsável pela diminuição das amplitudes dos modos radiais de um material piezelétrico compósito quando comparados com os modos radiais de um disco de cerâmica piezelétrica. Também foram feitos ensaios em tanque de imersão para determinar as propriedades mecânicas de amostras de epóxi e amostras de tungstênio e epóxi em função da fração de volume de tungstênio na amostra. / The objective of this work is to analyze piezoelectric composite materials with 1-3 and 2-2 connectivity for applications in ultrasonic transducers in the megahertz frequency range. The analysis is done through mathematical models and experimental validation. The analysis of piezoelectric composite materials can be done through the study of its three main vibrational modes: planar mode, thickness mode, and the lateral mode. In this work, it is used the Finite Element Method to model the planar, thickness and the lateral modes of the composite, and it is used analytical models to model the thickness and the lateral modes. The modeling of the thickness mode of an ultrasonic transducer is obtained through an unidimensional analytical model. The unidimensional modeling of the transducer is done by calculating the effective properties of the piezoelectric composite material. The effective properties are used in a distributed matrix model to calculate the electrical impedance of the composite and the impulse response of an ultrasonic transducer. To validate the models, a 1-3 and a 2-2 piezoelectric composite were built using the “dice-and-fill" technique. These composite were constructed using a piezoelectric ceramic of PZT-5A and epoxy. The piezoelectric composite with 1-3 connectivity was used in the fabrication of an ultrasonic transducer. The theoretical results of the electrical impedance and the impulse response are compared with the experimental results. The experimental electrical impedance is measured by using an impedance analyzer, and the experimental impulse response is measured by coupling the ultrasonic transducer prototype to an acrylic block. Due to the periodicity of the composite, it was analyzed the behaviour of mechanical waves in periodic media, showing that there are frequency ranges that the waves cannot propagate. It was verified that the periodicity is responsible for the suppression of the radial modes in a piezoelectric composite when compared with the radial modes of a disk of piezoelectric ceramic. It is also conducted measurements in a water filled tank to determine the mechanical properties of samples of epoxy, and Tungsten/epoxy composites as a function of the volume fraction of Tungsten.

Kwan Wing Tak. / On t.p., "3" is subscript following the word: Pb (Zr, Ti) O" in the title. / Title also in Chinese characters. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves [96-100]). / Acknowledgement / Abstract / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1-1 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Experimental Set-Up and Procedure / Chapter Section 2.1 --- General Description of Experiments --- p.2-1 / Chapter Section 2.2 --- High Temperature X-ray Diffraction Technique --- p.2-1 / Chapter Section 2.3 --- Sawyer-Tower Bridge --- p.2-3 / Chapter Section 2.4 --- Thermomechnical Analysis System(TMS) & Differential Scanning Calorimeter(DSC) --- p.2-4 / Chapter Section 2.5 --- Laser Experiment --- p.2-4 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- X-ray Experimental Results / Chapter Section 3.1 --- Investigation of PZT film on (100) MgO Single Crystal Substrate --- p.3-1 / Chapter Section 3.2 --- Investigaiton of PZT Bulk Materials by X-ray Diffractometer and Vacuum Chamber --- p.3-3 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Experimental Data from TMS / Chapter Section 4.1 --- Experimental Details --- p.4-1 / Chapter Section 4. 2 --- Results --- p.4-2 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- "Measurement of Curie temperature using Ferroelectric Properties, Heat Capacity and Piezoelectric Properties of PZT" / Chapter Section 5.1 --- Investigation of the Ferroelectric Properties of PZT Bulk Material by Sawyer´ؤTower Bridge --- p.5-1 / Chapter Section 5.2 --- Investigation of the Heat Capacity of PZT Bulk Material by Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) --- p.5-2 / Chapter Section 5.3 --- Investigation of Piezoelectric Properties of PZT Bulk Material by Laser Method --- p.5-3 / Chapter Section 5.4 --- Discussion of Results --- p.5-4 / Chapter Section 5.5 --- Data Summary --- p.5-5 / Chapter Chapter 6 --- Data Analysis and Discussion / Chapter Section 6.1 --- Analysis of Structural X-ray Data --- p.6-1 / Chapter Section 6.2 --- Analysis of TMS Data --- p.6-2 / Chapter Section 6.3 --- Discussion --- p.6-4 / Chapter Chapter 7 --- Conclusion --- p.7-1 / Reference

Orientador: Vicente Lopes Junior / Banca: Samuel Silva / Banca: Michael John Brennan / Banca: Carlos Alberto Cimini Junior / Resumo: Pesquisadores de diversas partes do mundo se empenham em desenvolver técnicas capazes de monitorar a integridade de máquinas, veículos e estruturas, principalmente as que a ruptura ou destruição possa provocar acidentes e catástrofes. Neste contexto, várias técnicas não destrutivas podem ser utilizadas para monitorar estes sistemas permitindo a realização de reparos e, evitando maiores prejuízos econômicos e danos sociais. A técnica da Impedância Eletromecânica está entre as técnicas baseadas na utilização de materiais piezelétricos e, particularmente, utiliza-se de uma curva sensível a pequenas variações na estrutura, característica que faz a técnica ser eficiente na detecção de danos incipientes. No entanto, sob variações das condições ambiente e de teste, a sensibilidade da técnica pode produzir falsos diagnósticos. Desta forma, o desafio atual é aplicar a técnica da Impedância Eletromecânica em sistemas de monitoramento considerando condições mais próximas às condições de operação reais dos sistemas a serem monitorados. Este trabalho apresenta duas metodologias para sistemas SHM, a primeira consiste em utilizar a técnica de agrupamento Fuzzy c-means para entender e considerar o efeito da temperatura nos sinais da Impedância Eletromecânica. A segunda metodologia utiliza análise de variância (ANOVA) para propor uma metodologia de detecção mais robusta, e assim, incorporar variações aleatórias nos sistemas de medição e aquisição sem comprometer o diagnóstico SHM / Abstract: Researchers around the world are engaged to develop techniques for structural health monitoring of machinery, vehicles and structures, especially systems where damage or destruction could induce accidents and disasters. In this context, several non-destructive techniques can be used to monitor these systems allowing repairs and avoiding major economic losses or social losses. The electromechanical impedance technique is among the techniques based on piezoelectric materials use and it is sensible to small variations in the structure which makes it efficient in detecting incipient damages. However, variations in the ambient or test conditions can cause false diagnoses. Therefore, the current challenge is to apply the electromechanical impedance technique considering monitoring conditions closer to real operating conditions of the systems to be monitored. This work presents two methodologies for SHM systems. The first one uses Fuzzy c-means clustering to distinguish the temperature effect on impedance signal. The second method uses analysis of variance (ANOVA) to propose a more robust detection methodology and thus incorporate random variations in measurement systems and acquisition without loss of SHM diagnostic / Mestre

There is an urgent and unmet clinical need to improve accuracy and safety during needle-based interventional procedures including regional anaesthesia and cancer biopsy. In ultrasound guided percutaneous needle procedures, there is a universal problem of imaging the needle, particularly the tip, especially in dense tissues and steep insertion angles. Poor visualization of the needle tip can have serious consequences for the patients including nerve damage and internal bleeding in regional anaesthesia and, in the case of biopsy, mis-sampling, resulting in misdiagnosis or the need for repeat biopsy. The aim of the work was to design and develop an ergonomic ultrasound device to actuate standard, unmodified needles such that the visibility of needle can be enhanced when observed under colour Doppler mode of ultrasound imaging. This will make the needle procedures efficient through accurate needle placement while reducing the overall procedure duration. The research reported in this thesis provides an insight into the new breed of piezoelectric materials. A methodology is proposed and implemented to characterize the new piezocrystals under ambient and extreme practical conditions. For the first time, the IEEE standard method (1987) was applied to an investigation of this type with binary (PMN-PT) and ternary (PIN-PMN-PT) compositions of piezocrystals. Using the existing data and the data obtained through characterization, finite element analysis (FEA) were carried to adequately design the ultrasound device. Various configurations of the device were modelled and fabricated, using both piezoceramic and piezocrystal materials, in order to assess the dependency of device’s performance on the configuration and type of piezoelectric material used. In order to prove the design concept and to measure the benefits of the device, pre-clinical trials were carried out on a range of specimens including the soft embalmed Thiel cadavers. Furthermore, an ultrasound planar cutting tool with various configurations was also designed and developed as an alternative to the existing cumbersome ultrasonic scalpels. These configurations were based on new piezocrystals including the Mn-doped ternary (Mn:PIN-PMN-PT) material. It is concluded that the needle actuating device can significantly enhance the visibility of standard needles and additionally benefits in reducing the penetration force. However, in order to make it clinically viable, further work is required to make it compliant with the medical environment. The piezocrystals tested under practical conditions although offer extraordinary piezoelectric properties, are vulnerable to extreme temperature and drive conditions. However, it is observed that newer piezocrystals, especially Mn:PIN-PMN-PT have shown the potential to replace the conventional piezoceramics in high power and actuator applications. Moreover, the d31-mode based planar cutting tool contrasts with the cumbersome design of mass-spring transducer structure and has the potential to be used in surgical procedures.

The capacity of humankind to mimic fish-like locomotion for engineering applications depends mainly on the availability of suitable actuators. Researchers have recently focused on developing robotic fish using smart materials, particularly Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMCs), as a compliant, noise-free, and scalable alternative to conventional motor-based propulsion systems. In this thesis, we investigate fish-like self propulsion using flexible bimorphs made of Macro-Fiber Composite (MFC) piezoelectric laminates. Similar to IPMCs, MFCs also exhibit high efficiency in size, energy consumption, and noise reduction. In addition, MFCs offer large dynamic forces in bending actuation, strong electromechanical coupling as well as both low-frequency and high-frequency performance capabilities. The experimental component of the presented work focuses on the characterization of an MFC bimorph propulsor for thrust generation in a quiescent fluid as well as the development of a preliminary robotic fish prototype incorporating a microcontroller and a printed-circuit-board (PCB) amplifier to generate high actuation voltage for battery-powered free locomotion. From the theoretical standpoint, a reliable modeling framework that couples the actuator dynamics, hydroelasticity, and fish locomotion theory is essential to both design and control of robotic fish. Therefore, a distributed-parameter electroelastic model with fluid effects and actuator dynamics is coupled with the elongated body theory. Both in-air and underwater experiments are performed to verify the incorporation of hydrodynamic effects in the linear actuation regime. For electroelastically nonlinear actuation levels, experimentally obtained underwater vibration response is coupled with the elongated body theory to predict the thrust output. Experiments are conducted to validate the electrohydroelastic modeling approach employed in this work and to characterize the performance of an MFC bimorph propulsor. Finally, a wireless battery-powered preliminary robotic fish prototype is developed and tested in free locomotion at different frequency and voltage levels.