High performance and low cost sensors based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have become commonplace in today's world. MEMS sensors, such as accelerometers, gy- roscopes, pressure sensors, and microphones, are routinely used in consumer electronics, automobiles, industrial and aerospace applications. Basically, all these devices mea- sure tiny displacements of micromachined mechanical structures in response to external stimuli. One of the widely used techniques to detect these displacements is piezoresistive sensing. Piezoresistive sensors are popular in MEMS due to their simplicity and robustness. Traditionally, silicon has been the material of choice for piezoresistors due to its high strain sensitivity or gauge factor. Whereas metal lm piezoresistors typically have low gauge factor that puts them out of favour when compared to silicon. But metal lm piezoresistors have several advantages compared to their semiconductor counterparts, including simple and low-cost fabrication, low resistivity and generally low noise. Low resistance sensors become desirable particularly when the devices are scaled down to nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), where signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) performance becomes crucial. Enhancing the gauge factor of metal lms while keeping their low resistance advantage can dramatically improve their SNR performance for NEMS. This thesis reports a simple method we have developed to enhance the gauge factor of metal lm piezoresistors. We demonstrate this method on specially designed micro- cantilever devices. Using controlled electromigration, we are able to engineer the microstructure of gold lm and transform it into a locally inhomogeneous conductor which resembles a percolation network. This results in more than 100 times higher gauge factor at low to moderate sensor resistance. The SNR possible with our piezoresistor at high frequencies exceeds that of most available systems by at least an order of magnitude. Our locally inhomogeneous metal lm piezoresistor is a promising candidate for high-performance NEMS-based sensors of the future.

With the development of modern industrial engineering technology, increasing demands of multifunctional materials drive the exploration of new applications of electrical conductive polymer nanocomposites (CPNCs). Toward applications of smart materials, sensing performance of CPNCs has gained immense attention in the last decade. Among them, strain sensors, based on piezoresistive behavior of CPNCs, are of high potential to carry out structural health monitoring (SHM) tasks. Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) is highly thought to be potential for SHM applications in civil infrastructures like bridges and railway systems, mechanical systems, automobiles, windgenetors and airplanes, etc. because of its combination of flexibility, low weight, low thermal conductivity, high chemical corrosion resistance, and heat resistance, etc. This work aimed to achieve high piezoresistive sensitivity and wide measurable strain ranges in carbon nanotube based poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) nanocomposites. Four strategies were introduced to tune the sensitivity of the relative electrical resistance change (ΔR/R0) versus the applied tensile strain for such nanocomposites. Issues like the influence of dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on initial resistivity of PVDF nanocomposites and conductive network structure of MWCNTs, as well as piezoresistive properties of the nanocomposites, were addressed when using differently functionalized MWCNTs (strategy 1). In addition, the effects of crystalline phases of PVDF, mechanical ductility of its nanocomposites and interfacial interactions between PVDF and fillers on piezoresistive properties of PVDF nanocomposites were studied. Using hybrid fillers, to combine MWCNTs with conductive carbon black (strategy 2) or isolating organoclay (strategy 3), piezoresistive sensitivity and sensing strain ranges of PVDF nanocomposites could be tuned. Besides, both higher sensitivity and larger measurable strain ranges are achieved simultaneously in PVDF/MWCNT nanocomposites when using the ionic liquid (IL) BMIM+PF6- as interface linker/modifier (strategy 4). The detailed results and highlights are summarized as following: 1. The surface functionalization of MWCNTs influences their dispersion in the PVDF matrix, the PVDF-nanotube interactions and crystalline phases of PVDF, which finally results in different ΔR/R0 and the strain at the yield point (possibly the upper limit of sensing strain ranges). As a whole, regarding to the fabrication of strain sensors based on PVDF/MWCNT nanocomposite, in contrast to pristine CNTs, CNTs-COOH and CNTs-OH, CNT-NH2 filled PVDF nanocomposites possess not only high piezoresistive sensitivity but also wide measurable strain ranges. Gauge factor, i.e. GF, is ca.14 at 10% strain (strain at the yield point) for the nanocomposites containing 0.75% CNTs-NH2. 2. Using hybrid fillers of CNTs and CB to construct strain-susceptible network structure (conductive pathway consisting of string-like array of CNTs and CB particles) enhances the piezoresistive sensitivity of PVDF nanocomposites, which is tightly associated with the CNT content in hybrid fillers and mCNTs/mCB. The best piezoresistive effect is achieved in PVDF nanocomposites with fixed CNT content lower than the ΦC (0.53 wt. %) of PVDF/CNT nanocomposites. 3. ΔR/R0 and possible sensing strain ranges of PVDF nanocomposites were tailored by changing crystalline phases of PVDF and PVDF-MWCNT interactions. Besides, the increase of the strain at yield point in PVDF nanocomposites filled by CNTs-OH is more obvious than that in the nanocomposites containing the same amount of clay and CNTs. The nanocomposite consisting of 0.25% clay and 0.75% CNTs-OH have ca. 70% increase of the strain at the yield point (17%) and the GF at this strain is ca. 14, while GF for the nanocomposite filled by only 0.75% CNTs-OH is ca. 5 at 10% strain. 4. IL BMIM+PF6- served as interface linker for PVDF and MWCNTs, which significantly increased the values of ΔR/R0 and strain at the yield point of PVDF nanocomposites simultaneously. Besides, this increases with increasing IL content. With the aid of IL, the dispersion of nanotube and toughness of the nanocomposites are greatly improved, but the electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites is decreased with the incorporation of IL, which is related to the IL modified PVDF-MWCNT interface connection or bonding. GF reaches ca. 60 at 21% strain (the strain at the yield point) for PVDF nanocomposites filled by 10% IL premixed 2%CNTs-COOH.

Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are a new class of nanoporous materials with high surface area, thermal/chemical stability and a taylorable pore size. These properties make MOFs ideal for storage and gas separation applications. Piezoresistive microcantilever sensors are microfabricated devices that are highly sensitive to surface strain due to doped single crystal silicon regions. Changes in resistance generated by surface strain can be measured with a high degree of accuracy using a Wheatstone bridge and basic instrumentation. This thesis will discuss the use of piezoresistive microcantilever sensors as a transduction mechanism for detection of volatile organic compounds (VOC's) using MOF coatings. It will be shown that by coating a microcantilever with MOFs it is possible to detect low levels of different VOC's (hundreds of parts per million). Excellent sensitivity and a simple transduction mechanism make these devices low power and highly compact. Such devices would be capable of detecting a plethora of different analytes at low concentrations. Devices were engineered for maximum response and microfabricated in the cleanroom with high yield. A custom setup for testing the devices was designed and machined. A number of MOFs were selected and tested, their response was recorded and analyzed. Twelve different analytes including eleven VOC's and water were used to characterize the MOFs. Microcantilever sensors were shown to be durable, reliable and stable in long term testing despite being subjected to many different analytes. MOF coatings proved flexible, durable, stable and reversible. This work will show a promising new technology for a next generation gas sensor.

Utilizing the bulk and surface micromachining technologies, this thesis designed and fabricated a piezoresistive pressure microsensor for developing an in-vivo and real-time biomedical detection microsystem to monitor the uric pressure in patients¡¦ bladder. In this study, the main processing steps include the implantation of a moderate boron ion concentration into the N-epitaxial silicon layer to form the piezoresistors, anisotropic etching the backside silicon substrate to create a cavity by 30% KOH solution in 80¢XC temperature, and anodic bonding of the silicon based pressure microsensor and the hole-drilled glass sustain. To obtain the optimum design specification of the piezoresistive pressure microsensor, this study compared the characterization of the four types of devices with three different pressure sensing area (As) and two different length/width ratios (L/W) of the N-epitaxial piezoresistors. Based on the measurement results, the highest sensitivity (0.0076mV/(V*kgf/cm2) can be achieved as the As and the L/W ratio are equal to 1050 ¡Ñ 1050 £gm2 and 90/9 £gm/£gm, respectively. Such sensitivity is suitable for the application of bladder pressure detection microsystem. A very high sensing linearity (99.6%) can also be demonstrated in this research and this value approach to that of the commercial pressure sensor. On the other hand, through cooperation with another laboratory, this work has established a prototype of the uric pressure detecting microsystem by assembled with the piezoresistive pressure microsensor, a control ASIC and a radio-frequency (RF) module.

Orientador: Marcelo Augusto Assunção Sanches / Resumo: Recentes estudos têm abordado o aprimoramento de sensores de pressão com a finalidade de reproduzir a sensibilidade da pele humana para ser utilizada em robôs. Dentre diversos materiais disponíveis na literatura, destaca-se o material piezoresistivo à base do elastômero Polidimetilsiloxano e Cobre Dendritico (Cu-PDMS), devido à tecnologia empregada na produção destes sensores. Este trabalho trata a síntese e a caracterizações de compósitos piezoresistivo Cu-PDMS para confecção de sensores de pressão, na forma matricial, para aplicações biomédicas, como palmilhas instrumentadas, sensor on/off, dentre outros. Com finalidade de análise do material atuando como sensor de pressão, foram fabricadas e testadas amostras com diferentes composições. Para o estudo das propriedades de cada amostra, foram realizadas caracterizações elétricas (resistência elétrica com pressão variável, condutividade ao longo do tempo e espectroscopia de impedância), mecânicas (caracterização mecânica do material, ensaio de tração e ensaio termogravimétrico) e Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV). Os resultados obtidos mostram as faixas possíveis para utilização do material como sensor de pressão, e os fatores que podem influenciar o seu emprego. / Abstract: Recent studies have addressed the improvement of pressure sensors in order to reproduce the sensitivity of human skin to be used in robots. Among the various materials available in the literature, the piezoresistive material based on the polydimethylsiloxane and Dendritic Copper (Cu-PDMS) elastomer stands out, due to the technology used in the production of these sensors. This work deals with the synthesis and characterization of Cu-PDMS piezoresistive composites for making pressure sensors, in matrix form, for biomedical applications such as instrumented insoles, on / off sensor, among others. In order to analyze the material acting as a pressure sensor, samples with different compositions were manufactured and tested. For the study of the properties of each sample, electrical characterizations (electrical resistance with variable pressure, conductivity over time and impedance spectroscopy), mechanical characterizations (mechanical characterization of the material, tensile test and thermogravimetric test) and Scanning Electron Microscopy were performed (ME V). The results obtained show the possible ranges for using the material as a pressure sensor, and the factors that can influence its use. / Mestre

With the development of modern industrial engineering technology, increasing demands of multifunctional materials drive the exploration of new applications of electrical conductive polymer nanocomposites (CPNCs). Toward applications of smart materials, sensing performance of CPNCs has gained immense attention in the last decade. Among them, strain sensors, based on piezoresistive behavior of CPNCs, are of high potential to carry out structural health monitoring (SHM) tasks. Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) is highly thought to be potential for SHM applications in civil infrastructures like bridges and railway systems, mechanical systems, automobiles, windgenetors and airplanes, etc. because of its combination of flexibility, low weight, low thermal conductivity, high chemical corrosion resistance, and heat resistance, etc. This work aimed to achieve high piezoresistive sensitivity and wide measurable strain ranges in carbon nanotube based poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) nanocomposites. Four strategies were introduced to tune the sensitivity of the relative electrical resistance change (ΔR/R0) versus the applied tensile strain for such nanocomposites. Issues like the influence of dispersion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on initial resistivity of PVDF nanocomposites and conductive network structure of MWCNTs, as well as piezoresistive properties of the nanocomposites, were addressed when using differently functionalized MWCNTs (strategy 1). In addition, the effects of crystalline phases of PVDF, mechanical ductility of its nanocomposites and interfacial interactions between PVDF and fillers on piezoresistive properties of PVDF nanocomposites were studied. Using hybrid fillers, to combine MWCNTs with conductive carbon black (strategy 2) or isolating organoclay (strategy 3), piezoresistive sensitivity and sensing strain ranges of PVDF nanocomposites could be tuned. Besides, both higher sensitivity and larger measurable strain ranges are achieved simultaneously in PVDF/MWCNT nanocomposites when using the ionic liquid (IL) BMIM+PF6- as interface linker/modifier (strategy 4). The detailed results and highlights are summarized as following: 1. The surface functionalization of MWCNTs influences their dispersion in the PVDF matrix, the PVDF-nanotube interactions and crystalline phases of PVDF, which finally results in different ΔR/R0 and the strain at the yield point (possibly the upper limit of sensing strain ranges). As a whole, regarding to the fabrication of strain sensors based on PVDF/MWCNT nanocomposite, in contrast to pristine CNTs, CNTs-COOH and CNTs-OH, CNT-NH2 filled PVDF nanocomposites possess not only high piezoresistive sensitivity but also wide measurable strain ranges. Gauge factor, i.e. GF, is ca.14 at 10% strain (strain at the yield point) for the nanocomposites containing 0.75% CNTs-NH2. 2. Using hybrid fillers of CNTs and CB to construct strain-susceptible network structure (conductive pathway consisting of string-like array of CNTs and CB particles) enhances the piezoresistive sensitivity of PVDF nanocomposites, which is tightly associated with the CNT content in hybrid fillers and mCNTs/mCB. The best piezoresistive effect is achieved in PVDF nanocomposites with fixed CNT content lower than the ΦC (0.53 wt. %) of PVDF/CNT nanocomposites. 3. ΔR/R0 and possible sensing strain ranges of PVDF nanocomposites were tailored by changing crystalline phases of PVDF and PVDF-MWCNT interactions. Besides, the increase of the strain at yield point in PVDF nanocomposites filled by CNTs-OH is more obvious than that in the nanocomposites containing the same amount of clay and CNTs. The nanocomposite consisting of 0.25% clay and 0.75% CNTs-OH have ca. 70% increase of the strain at the yield point (17%) and the GF at this strain is ca. 14, while GF for the nanocomposite filled by only 0.75% CNTs-OH is ca. 5 at 10% strain. 4. IL BMIM+PF6- served as interface linker for PVDF and MWCNTs, which significantly increased the values of ΔR/R0 and strain at the yield point of PVDF nanocomposites simultaneously. Besides, this increases with increasing IL content. With the aid of IL, the dispersion of nanotube and toughness of the nanocomposites are greatly improved, but the electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites is decreased with the incorporation of IL, which is related to the IL modified PVDF-MWCNT interface connection or bonding. GF reaches ca. 60 at 21% strain (the strain at the yield point) for PVDF nanocomposites filled by 10% IL premixed 2%CNTs-COOH.

Lower leg injuries commonly occur in both automobile accidents and underbody explosive blasts, which can be experienced in war by mounted soldiers. These injuries are associated with high morbidity. Accurate methods to predict these injuries, especially in the foot and ankle, must be developed to facilitate the testing and improvement of vehicle safety systems. Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) are one of the tools used to assess injury risk. These mimic the behavior of the human body in a crash while recording data from sensors in the ATD. Injury criteria for the lower leg have been developed with testing of the leg in a neutral posture, but initial posture may affect the likelihood of lower leg injury. In this thesis, the influence of initial posture on key injury assessment criteria used in crash testing with ATDs was examined. It was determined that these criteria are influenced by ATD leg posture, but further work is necessary to determine if the changes in outcome correspond to altered injury risk in humans when the ankle is in the same postures. In order to better quantify the forces acting on various areas of the foot and correlate those with injury, allowing for development of new criteria, a purpose built force sensor was created. An array of these sensors was incorporated into a boot and used to instrument an ATD leg during impact testing. The sensors provided useful information regarding the force distribution across the sole of the foot during an impact. A numerical simulation of the active material in the sensor was also created to better understand the effect of shear loading on the sensor. This work furthers the understanding of lower leg injury prediction and develops a tool which may be useful in developing accurate injury criteria for the foot and lower leg. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc) / This work investigates how the posture of the lower leg of a crash test dummy can influence the interpretation of crash test results. A tool was created to measure forces acting on the foot during testing. The force measurement uses a material which changes resistance when it is compressed.

The objective of this work is to demonstrate the feasibility of on-chip sensing of bistable mechanism state using the piezoresistive properties of polysilicon, thus eliminating the need for electrical contacts. Changes in position are detected by observing changes in resistance across the mechanism. Sensing the state of bistable mechanisms is critical in their various applications. The research in this thesis advances the modeling techniques of MEMS devices which use piezoresistivity for position sensing. A fully compliant bistable micro mechanism was designed, fabricated, and tested to demonstrate the feasibility of this sensing technique. Testing results from two fabrication processes, Fairchild's SUMMiT IV and MUMPs, are compared. The Fairchild mechanism was then integrated into various Wheatstone bridge configurations to show the advantages of bridges and to demonstrate various design layouts. Repeatable and detectable results were found with independent mechanisms and with those integrated into Wheatstone bridges. Finite element models were constructed for the different Wheatstone bridges which were used to predict piezoresistive trends. A bistable mechanism for high-acceleration sensing was designed using uncertainty analysis optimization. The piezoresistive effects for this mechanism were also modeled. Discussion concerning nonvolatile memory applications is also presented.

Proper positioning of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) components influences the functionality of the device, especially in devices where the motion is in the range of hundreds of micrometers. There are two main obstacles to positioning: off-axis displacement, and position determination. This work studies four large-displacement devices, their axial and transverse stiffness, and piezoresistive response. Methods for improving the device characteristics are described. The folded-beam suspension, small X-Bob, large X-Bob and double X-Bob were characterized using non-dimensional metrics that measure the displacement with regard to the size of the device, and transverse stiffness with regard to axial stiffness. The stiffness in each direction was determined using microprobes to induce displacement, and microfabricated force gauges to determine the applied force. The large X-Bob was optimized, increasing the transverse stiffness metric by 67%. Four-point resistance testing and microprobes were used to determine the piezoresistive response of the devices. The piezoresistive response of the X-Bob was maximized using an optimization routine. The resulting piezoresistive response was over seven times larger than that of the initial design. Piezoresistive encoders for ratcheting actuation of large-displacement MEMS are introduced. Four encoders were studied and were found to provide information on the performance of the ratcheting actuation system at frequencies up to 920 Hz. The PMT encoder produced unique signals corresponding to distinct ideal and non-ideal operation of the ratchet wheel actuation system. Encoders may be useful for future applications which require position determination.

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