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A study was conducted to evaluate the use of Leucaena leucocephala leaf meal (LLM) as a protein supplement for pigs. In addition, an evaluation of detoxifying LLM, by sun-drying, water-soaking, or treating with ferrous sulphate (FeS04) solution was undertaken. The research involved two experiments; a growth study and a metabolic study. In the growth study sixteen, 12 weeks old Large White x Landrace pigs (average body weight 22.9 ± 2.12 kg) were fed four experimental rations; a commercial grain-based grower /finisher ration (control); or a ration containing 20% of either sun-dried LLM, water-soaked LLM, or FeS04-treated LLM, replacing the basal diet. There was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in liveweight gain, feed intake and feed conversion efficiency in pigs fed the ration containing sun-dried LLM. Growth rate, feed intake and feed conversion efficiency were not affected by the addition of water-soaked and FeS04-treated LLM to the basal diet. Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) levels in the blood plasma were not affected by the dietary treatments. However, addition of FeS04-treated LLM to the basal diet significantly (P<0.05) decreased the back fat thickness of the pigs. In the metabolic study, the digestible dry matter (DDM) and digestible CP (DCP) were measured as well as mimosine, 3-hydroxy-4-(1H) pyridone (3,4-DHP) and 2,3DHP output in the faeces and urine. / Addition of water-soaked LLM to the diet significantly (P<0.05) lowered the DDM of the diet, whereas addition of FeS04-treated LLM significantly (P<0.05) reduced the DCP. Sun-drying, water-soaking and treatment of LLM with FeS04 solution, did not enhance the output of mimosine or 3,4-DHP in the urine and faeces. The results suggest that water soaking or treatment with FeS04 solution reduces the antinutritional factors (presumably including mimosine) and therefore improves the nutritional quality of LLM containing diets for pigs.

The aim of this study was to find out about the Swedish pig farmers strategies to keep up with the competition against the import of pork from Denmark and at the same time be able to satisfy the pigs need of acting out their natural behavior. This study is based on in-depth interviews with the company "MinFarm" and eight Swedish pork producers. The result of the study was several different strategies for the Swedish pork producers to maintain in the competition against the imported meat and farmers opinions about animal welfare. One of the pork producers pointed out that it is not possible to create a completely natural environment because the pigs live in stables. The concept about animal welfare is not easy to define but pigs that are healthy, gets its social needs satisfied and doesn't suffer from any diseases has a better life and higher welfare than animals who does not live under those conditions. For the farmers to make it worth the extra cost of the higher welfare, customers must be willing to prioritize the animal’s welfare and be willing to pay the extra money that will provide for the production. At present, it is not possible to have an effective meat production and high economic viability while ensuring animal welfare. To secure the Swedish meat production financial compensation will be needed for higher welfare. The market for locally produced products might be limited as it doesn't involve all kind of customers.

The burden of Streptococcus suis infection in humans is increasing worldwide. In Thailand, S. suis is the second most commonly recorded zoonosis. The principal sources of human S. suis infection are pig and pork products. A detailed understanding of the epidemiological characteristics of S. suis and the burden of the disease may help improve prevention and control policy to reduce the burden of this bacterial infection. The work presented in this thesis focuses on human outbreaks of S. suis in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in humans and backyard pigs. This thesis examined the characteristics of previous outbreaks of S. suis in humans and calculated the incidence, disease burden and the associated economic burden of S. suis infection in Chiang Mai. The backyard pig system is important for S. suis transmission and this thesis examined the characteristics of the backyard pig production system in Chaing Mai and examined the prevalence and risk factor for S. suis infection in pigs. Finally, to examine transmission of S. suis, isolates collected during this study were identified and subject to molecular characterization. A retrospective analysis of surveillance data for S. suis cases in Chiang Mai between 2005 to 2014 highlighted the annual incidence rate over this ten year period of 15.52 per 1,000,000 population, 6.5 times higher than for the rest of Thailand (2.37 per 1,000,000 population). The case fatality rate was high at 10.12%. The impact on human health of S. suis infection was derived from surveillance data for the year 2013. The health burden measured in term of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) was estimated at 7.41 per 100,000 population. Most of the health burden (98.28%) was in adults aged 15-64 years. Males had 3.5 times the health burden of females. The consequences of hearing loss and deafness had significant impacts on affected individuals quality of life. The economic impact of S. suis outbreaks in Chiang Mai was between 2013 and 2014 was estimated from interview data. Most patients were covered for their health costs by the national health security scheme, with expenditure due to S. suis on average being 37,955 baht (£759) per patient. Out of pocket expenses for individuals and their families averaged 5,198 baht (£104) per patient. An epidemiological survey of backyard pig production facilities was undertaken in Chiang Mai province where there was a reported high incidence of S. suis cases in humans occurred each year. Most holdings had between one to five pigs and all holdings shared similar characteristics and management practices. The prevalence of S. suis was in pigs was 4.8% (95%CI=2.2-7.4%). Pigs living in larger spaces (≥ 1.2 m2) showed a lower risk for S. suis infection (OR = 4.35, 95% CI = 1.07-25.21). Examination of the isolates from this study revealed a diversity of serotypes. Only one isolate was identified as S. suis serotype 9. The rest did not match any common serotypes for S. suis (1, 2, 7 or 9) and known virulent strains were not identified. Twelve independent sequence profiles were determined by MLST, of which, 11 were novel. Backyard pigs were found to be commonly infected with a range of previously unidentified S. suis and may be a significant reservoir of human infection.

Visando investigar a dinâmica locacional das empresas dos complexos aves e suínos estabelecidas na região Centro-Oeste brasileira, foi conduzida uma pesquisa empírica do processo de decisão locacional e dos fatores-chave na escolha do local produtivo, tendo como referencial teórico uma abordagem comportamental da Teoria da Localização. A pressuposição central deste estudo é a de que os preços mais baixos das matérias-primas básicas (em especial o milho) nos estados da região Centro-Oeste não são suficientes para explicar o desenvolvimento das atividades dos complexos de aves e suínos nessa região. O método de pesquisa empregado foi o de questionário, enviado para as 46 empresas de aves e suínos presentes no Centro-Oeste no segundo semestre de 2000, contemplando basicamente duas classes de variáveis, as de decisão e as locacionais. Pelo fato de as variáveis terem sido do tipo qualitativas, o instrumental analítico adotado foi a análise de tabelas de contingência, sendo a independência entre os pares de variáveis avaliada através de testes de hipótese. Com taxa de retorno dos questionários de aproximadamente 59%, detectou-se, dentre as principais características das empresas, que 74% instalaram-se na região na década de 90; 40% são empresas grandes, 30% médias e 30% pequenas; 64% das empresas constituíam-se em um novo negócio ou em uma expansão de uma empresa regional, sendo que 45% das primeiras tiveram empresários oriundos de regiões fora do Centro-Oeste; 83% da capacidade de abate de aves e suínos está concentrada nas empresas integradoras. Apesar de a estatística descritiva ter sugerido que as empresas grandes, integradoras e oriundas de outras regiões que não o Centro-Oeste tivessem apresentado maior esmero na pesquisa locacional - em termos da abrangência e tempo da pesquisa, das informações e estudos utilizados, da escolha ou não pela última alternativa pesquisada e da elaboração de perfil prévio da localização almejada - os testes de hipótese não significativos acarretaram na não rejeição de independência entre as variáveis. Já a característica meta do empresário, que conseguiu determinar um agrupamento prévio das empresas que as fizesse diferir em seu processo de decisão locacional, em especial entre os grupos de empresas categorizadas com as metas minimizar custos de abastecimento de matérias-primas e apenas iniciar uma atividade produtiva como outra qualquer, apresentou testes significativos. Assim, seja a empresa grande ou integradora, o fato dela ter explicitado não haver uma clara pretensão em estar iniciando, expandindo ou relocalizando sua atividade produtiva no Centro-Oeste, denota a sua pequena preocupação com a localização. Com relação aos fatores locacionais determinantes do local da escolha, foi claro o desequilíbrio entre o elevado nível de importância atribuído ao vetor matérias-primas para com os outros. Os resultados obtidos permitem concluir que o milho de fato age como norteador das atividades de aves e suínos na região Centro-Oeste, configurando-se não somente como fator de atração às empresas, mas também como elemento naturalmente causador de atividades sinérgicas de agregação de valor a jusante da produção. / With a view to research the location dynamics for poultry and hog-raising companies in the Brazilian Midwest, an empiric survey was carried out about the location decision-making, with a behavioral approach to the Localization Theory serving as a theoretical benchmark. The core assumption in this survey is that lower prices for basic input (particularly corn) in the Midwestern states are not enough to explain the development in the poultry and hog complexes in that region. The research method employed was a questionnaire, sent to the 46 poultry and hog companies operating in Midwestern Brazil in the second half of 2000, taking into account, basically, two classes of variables - the ones relating to decision-making and the ones relating to location. Because the variables contemplated are qualitative, the analytical tool set adopted was an analysis of contingency tables, with the interdependence between pairs of variables evaluated through test hypotheses. With an approximate 59% return on questionnaires sent, it has detected, among other main traits for the corporations, that 74% of them entered the region in the 90s; 40% are big, 30% medium and 30% small companies; 64% of them were new businesses or expansions of regional companies, and 45% of the first group were commanded by businessmen from outside the Midwestern region; 83% of the slaughtering capacity for poultry and hogs is concentrated on integrators. Although descriptive statistics suggest that big, integrator companies coming from outside Midwestern Brazil have dedicated more effort to location research - in scope and research time; information and studies employed; whether the alternative selected was the last one to be considered; and the previous creation of a profile for the desired location -, the non-significant hypotheses tests denied a dependence between variables. On the other hand, the trait selected as a goal by businessmen, which has resulted in a previous grouping of companies with differences on their location selection process, particularly among companies which had as goals minimizing their raw material costs or only to begin a production activity of whatever kind, has presented significant test results. Thus, albeit the company is big or an integrator, the fact that it has explicitly claimed that it did not intend to begin, expand or relocate activities to Midwestern Brazil shows its lack of care about location. Regarding the location factors that determined a location selection, there was a clear lack of balance between the high importance attributed to the raw material vector and most any other factor. The results obtained allow to conclude that corn is in fact a defining factor for poultry and hog-raising activities in the Midwest, serving not only as an attraction factor for companies but also as en element which naturally brings synergetic value-adding activities as an accessory to production.

Visando investigar a dinâmica locacional das empresas dos complexos aves e suínos estabelecidas na região Centro-Oeste brasileira, foi conduzida uma pesquisa empírica do processo de decisão locacional e dos fatores-chave na escolha do local produtivo, tendo como referencial teórico uma abordagem comportamental da Teoria da Localização. A pressuposição central deste estudo é a de que os preços mais baixos das matérias-primas básicas (em especial o milho) nos estados da região Centro-Oeste não são suficientes para explicar o desenvolvimento das atividades dos complexos de aves e suínos nessa região. O método de pesquisa empregado foi o de questionário, enviado para as 46 empresas de aves e suínos presentes no Centro-Oeste no segundo semestre de 2000, contemplando basicamente duas classes de variáveis, as de decisão e as locacionais. Pelo fato de as variáveis terem sido do tipo qualitativas, o instrumental analítico adotado foi a análise de tabelas de contingência, sendo a independência entre os pares de variáveis avaliada através de testes de hipótese. Com taxa de retorno dos questionários de aproximadamente 59%, detectou-se, dentre as principais características das empresas, que 74% instalaram-se na região na década de 90; 40% são empresas grandes, 30% médias e 30% pequenas; 64% das empresas constituíam-se em um novo negócio ou em uma expansão de uma empresa regional, sendo que 45% das primeiras tiveram empresários oriundos de regiões fora do Centro-Oeste; 83% da capacidade de abate de aves e suínos está concentrada nas empresas integradoras. Apesar de a estatística descritiva ter sugerido que as empresas grandes, integradoras e oriundas de outras regiões que não o Centro-Oeste tivessem apresentado maior esmero na pesquisa locacional - em termos da abrangência e tempo da pesquisa, das informações e estudos utilizados, da escolha ou não pela última alternativa pesquisada e da elaboração de perfil prévio da localização almejada - os testes de hipótese não significativos acarretaram na não rejeição de independência entre as variáveis. Já a característica meta do empresário, que conseguiu determinar um agrupamento prévio das empresas que as fizesse diferir em seu processo de decisão locacional, em especial entre os grupos de empresas categorizadas com as metas minimizar custos de abastecimento de matérias-primas e apenas iniciar uma atividade produtiva como outra qualquer, apresentou testes significativos. Assim, seja a empresa grande ou integradora, o fato dela ter explicitado não haver uma clara pretensão em estar iniciando, expandindo ou relocalizando sua atividade produtiva no Centro-Oeste, denota a sua pequena preocupação com a localização. Com relação aos fatores locacionais determinantes do local da escolha, foi claro o desequilíbrio entre o elevado nível de importância atribuído ao vetor matérias-primas para com os outros. Os resultados obtidos permitem concluir que o milho de fato age como norteador das atividades de aves e suínos na região Centro-Oeste, configurando-se não somente como fator de atração às empresas, mas também como elemento naturalmente causador de atividades sinérgicas de agregação de valor a jusante da produção. / With a view to research the location dynamics for poultry and hog-raising companies in the Brazilian Midwest, an empiric survey was carried out about the location decision-making, with a behavioral approach to the Localization Theory serving as a theoretical benchmark. The core assumption in this survey is that lower prices for basic input (particularly corn) in the Midwestern states are not enough to explain the development in the poultry and hog complexes in that region. The research method employed was a questionnaire, sent to the 46 poultry and hog companies operating in Midwestern Brazil in the second half of 2000, taking into account, basically, two classes of variables - the ones relating to decision-making and the ones relating to location. Because the variables contemplated are qualitative, the analytical tool set adopted was an analysis of contingency tables, with the interdependence between pairs of variables evaluated through test hypotheses. With an approximate 59% return on questionnaires sent, it has detected, among other main traits for the corporations, that 74% of them entered the region in the 90s; 40% are big, 30% medium and 30% small companies; 64% of them were new businesses or expansions of regional companies, and 45% of the first group were commanded by businessmen from outside the Midwestern region; 83% of the slaughtering capacity for poultry and hogs is concentrated on integrators. Although descriptive statistics suggest that big, integrator companies coming from outside Midwestern Brazil have dedicated more effort to location research - in scope and research time; information and studies employed; whether the alternative selected was the last one to be considered; and the previous creation of a profile for the desired location -, the non-significant hypotheses tests denied a dependence between variables. On the other hand, the trait selected as a goal by businessmen, which has resulted in a previous grouping of companies with differences on their location selection process, particularly among companies which had as goals minimizing their raw material costs or only to begin a production activity of whatever kind, has presented significant test results. Thus, albeit the company is big or an integrator, the fact that it has explicitly claimed that it did not intend to begin, expand or relocate activities to Midwestern Brazil shows its lack of care about location. Regarding the location factors that determined a location selection, there was a clear lack of balance between the high importance attributed to the raw material vector and most any other factor. The results obtained allow to conclude that corn is in fact a defining factor for poultry and hog-raising activities in the Midwest, serving not only as an attraction factor for companies but also as en element which naturally brings synergetic value-adding activities as an accessory to production.

This study investigates the impact of nutrient management regulations on pig farms in Ontario, Canada. Using mathematical programming, small, medium and large farrow to finish and finishing pig farms are examined using uniform and crop requirement based manure application. The model scenarios characterize the cost of compliance when nutrient application standards are applied from the Nutrient Management Act and a previously proposed standard from the Clean Water Act. Compliance costs for scenarios with uniform manure application are ≤6.47%; while compliance costs for scenarios with crop requirement based manure application are ≤0.25%. The Nutrient Management Act has two calculations for nutrient application standards, producers must comply with the less binding calculation. Compliance costs for producers under the less binding standard following a uniform manure application strategy are ≤1.53%; while producers following a crop requirement based manure application strategy have no compliance costs. The proposed Clean Water Act standard is more restrictive than the Nutrient Management Act standards. / Ontario Pork, OMAFRA

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Two experiments were performed in order to determine the maintenance requirements and marginal efficiency of utilization of the amino acids lysine and threonine, through the nitrogen balance technique. It was used 12 castrated pigs, on each experiment, with an average weight of 52 ± 2 kg (experiment with lysine) and 72 ± 2 kg (experiment with threonine) were kept in metabolism crates in temperature-controlled room of 22 ± 3°C. The pigs were distributed in four diets formulated to supply 30, 50, 60 and 70% of expected standardized digestible lysine requirements and supply 30, 45, 60 and 70% of expected standardized digestible threonine requirements using a changeover design with two periods (seven to adaptation and five collection). All of other essential amino acids were furnished at a minimum of 15% excess level relative to the level of amino acid test. The feed was provided to cover 2.6 times the metabolizable energy requirements needed to maintenance with a daily adjustment according to the expected gain of 0.8 kilograms. The lysine experiment there was no difference (P> 0.00) in dry matter intake (DMI) and metabolizable energy intake (MEI) between treatments. Already in the experiment threonine significant difference was observed of DMI and MEI between treatments. In lysine experiment the amount nitrogen excreted represents on average 46% of the nitrogen ingested with 35% of the nitrogen excreted in feces and 65% in urine. As in lysine experiment the amount nitrogen excreted represents on average 43% of the nitrogen ingested with 35 and 60% of the nitrogen excreted in feces and urine, respectively. The total losses were lysine and threonine 36.4 and 46.3 mg kg-1 BW0.75, respectively, resulting in lysine maintenance requirements of 40.4 mg kg-1 BW0.75 and threonine maintenance requirements of 62.2 mg kg-1 BW0.75. In our experiment the marginal efficiency of lysine and threonine utilization was 90 and 74%, respectively, meaning that 10% of lysine and 26% of intake of standardized threonine was not recovered in the body protein. / Dois experimentos foram realizados com o objetivo de determinar a exigência de manutenção e eficiência marginal de utilização para deposição de proteína dos aminoácidos lisina e treonina, através da técnica de balanço de nitrogênio. Foram utilizados 12 suínos castrados, em cada um dos experimentos, com peso vivo médio de 52 ± 2 kg (experimento lisina) e 72 ± 2 kg (experimento treonina). Os animais foram alojados em gaiolas metabólicas, mantidos em sala climatizada com temperatura de 22 ± 3°C. O delineamento experimental foi um changeover constituído de quatro dietas elaboradas para atender 30, 50, 60 e 70% das exigências nutricionais de lisina digestível estandardizada e 30, 45, 60 e 70% das exigências nutricionais de treonina digestível estandardizada. A quantidade ração fornecida foi calculada para suprir 2,6 vezes à energia metabolizável de manutenção. Os demais aminoácidos foram adicionados às dietas para atingir a proporção de, no mínimo, 15% de suas exigências expressas em relação ao aminoácido teste. Os animais foram alimentados quatro vezes ao dia, com um ajuste diário no consumo de ração de acordo com uma taxa de ganho médio diária de 0,8 kg de peso vivo. Os experimentos foram divididos em dois períodos experimentais consecutivos (sete dias de adaptação e cinco dias de coleta). No experimento de lisina não houve diferença significativa da matéria seca ingerida (MSI) e energia metabolizável ingerida (EMI) entre os diferentes níveis de lisina na ração. Já no experimento de treonina observou-se diferença significativa da MSI e EMI entre os tratamentos. No experimento de lisina o nitrogênio excretado representou, em média, 46% do nitrogênio ingerido, sendo que 35% desse nitrogênio excretado foi eliminado pelas fezes e o restante (65%) na urina. No experimento de treonina o nitrogênio excretado representou, em média, 43% do nitrogênio ingerido, sendo que 35 e 65% desse nitrogênio excretado foi eliminado pelas fezes e urina, respectivamente. As perdas totais de lisina e treonina foram de 36,4 e 46,3 mg kg-1 PV0,75, respectivamente, resultando na exigência diária para manutenção de 40,4 mg kg-1 PV0,75 de lisina e 62,2 mg kg-1 PV0,75 de treonina. Em nossos experimentos a eficiência marginal de utilização de lisina e treonina foram de 90 e 74%, respectivamente, ou seja, 10% da lisina e 26% da treonina estandardizada ingerida não foram recuperadas nas proteínas corporais.