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Epidemiological data indicate that children conceived in vitro have a greater relative risk of low birth-weight, major and minor birth defects, and rare disorders involving imprinted genes, suggesting that epigenetic changes may be associated with assisted reproduction. DNA methylation and gene expression differences have been found in cord blood and placenta comparing children conceived in vitro using assisted reproductive technology (ART) and children conceived in vivo. The source of these differences (the effect of ART versus underlying infertility) has never been identified in humans. In order to determine what fraction of the DNA methylation and gene expression difference is attributable to the ART procedure and what fraction is attributable to underlying infertility, quasi-transcriptome-wide DNA methylation profiles were compared between (1) in vitro ART children of mothers who are infertile as a result of a physical impediment to fertilization (tubal blockage) or children conceived with the aid of donor oocytes as a group (tubal and donor egg group), and (2) children of parent(s) who have idiopathic infertility (infertility group). Both groups were compared to children conceived in vivo. Our data suggest strongly that many of the DNA methylation and gene expression differences observed between the in vitro and in vivo conceptions are associated with some aspect of ART procedure, rather than underlying infertility. / Molecular Biology and Genetics

The human placenta facilitates many key functions during pregnancy, including uterine invasion, vascular remodeling, hormone secretion, immune regulation, and maternal-fetal exchange. Placental research, however, has been limited in part by the unrepresentative nature of traditional models. The objective of this doctoral thesis was to build and characterize novel, in vitro models that reintegrated important anatomical and environmental elements of the human placenta, thus enabling more physiologically-accurate assessments of placental function. In our first model, we manipulated the thickness of the extracellular matrix surface to promote the self-assembly of trophoblast cells into three-dimensional (3D) aggregates that exhibited increased genetic and functional markers of syncytial fusion. In our second model, we established a high-throughput platform to generate 3D trophoblast spheroids that underwent dynamic invasion and migration, expressed transcriptomic profiles redolent of the extravillous trophoblast phenotype, and responded to various drugs relevant to pregnancy. In our third model, we developed a trophoblast-endothelial co-culture model of the placental barrier that underwent syncytial fusion, exhibited size-specific barrier permeability, and functioned under physiologically-relevant oxygen tensions. In conclusion, our models may each serve as valuable tools for researchers, contribute to investigations of different aspects of placental biology, and aid in the screening of drugs and toxins for pregnancy. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The human placenta is an important organ that helps regulate the health of both the mother and fetus during pregnancy. Researchers have traditionally studied the placenta through the use of animals or isolated cells, but these have been criticized for not being similar enough to the human placenta. Our objective was to build models that better resembled the structure and environment experienced by the human placenta within the body, such that we could better study its function. During the course of my doctoral work, I built and analyzed three models of the human placenta using human cells that were grown in three dimensions, in multiple layers, and/or in a specific environment. Our first model demonstrated that placental cell behaviour and function can be controlled by altering the thickness of the surface we grew them on. Our second model grew placental cells in three-dimensions and mimicked the invasion process into the mother’s uterus during early pregnancy. Our third model grew placental cells with blood vessel cells to form the barrier that regulates the passage of all substances between the mother and fetus during pregnancy. We also tested the impact of low oxygen on the placental barrier’s formation and function. Overall, we discovered that placental cells could indeed function more similarly to how we expect them to in the body when we design platforms that better resemble their structure and environment. Our model development work provides new information about placental biology and may serve as valuable tools in research and drug development.

Automobile crashes are the largest cause of death for pregnant females and the leading cause of traumatic fetal injury mortality in the United States. The first way to protect the fetus is to protect the mother considering that maternal death has a near 100% fetal loss rate. If the mother survives, protection of the fetus may best be accomplished by preventing placental abruption. Placental abruption, which is the premature separation of the placenta from the uterus, has been shown to account for 50% to 70% of fetal losses in motor vehicle crashes. Since real world crash data for pregnant occupants is limited to a retrospective analysis and pregnant cadaver studies are not feasible, crash test dummies and computational modeling have been utilized to evaluate the risk of adverse fetal outcome. Although pregnant occupant research has progressed with these tools, they are based on limited tissue data. In order to have more accurate research tools, better pregnant tissue material data are needed. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation is to provide material properties for the placenta and pregnant uterine tissue in dynamic tension. / Ph. D.

The placenta is a highly vascularized, temporary organ developed in pregnancy that is composed of both maternal and fetal cells. It plays a pivotal role in gestational health by facilitating embryo implantation and fostering nutrient exchange between mother and fetus. Placental malformation and the diffusion of harmful exogenous substances through the placental barrier can cause pregnancy complications and, in more severe cases, death of the mother or the fetus. Further, the placenta undergoes profound morphological and functional changes throughout pregnancy. Establishing models to mimic these phenomena at different stages of pregnancy informs prescription drug safety and expedites the development of placental disease treatments. Mouse models are often used to simulate human fetal development despite major interspecies differences. These limitations drive researchers to developing in vitro models consisting of human-derived cells. This thesis presents three 3D vascularized placental models utilizing human placental stem cells (PSCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) which can model multiple placental phenomena across early- and late-stage pregnancy. The first model features a 3D fibrin hydrogel network with self-assembled vasculature and a monolayer of syncytialized human trophoblastic stem cells (STs) serving as a platform for barrier studies at the maternal-fetal interface. By tuning trophoblast differentiation and vascularization of this model to mimic the early- and late-stage placenta, it was revealed that placental barrier permeability was dependent on placental maturity and that the vascular barrier is also a critical determinant of what molecules can be passed from the mother to the fetus. The design and manufacturing of this model were then streamlined to meet the demands of large-scale drug studies in the second placental barrier model. Placental invasion into the maternal decidua is carefully orchestrated by multiple cell types to prevent over- and under-invasion, both of which can be dangerous to the mother and fetus. Understanding the biochemical and environmental cues that permit this healthy invasion can allow for improved diagnostics and treatments of placental diseases, such as preeclampsia and placenta accreta. Thus, the third model presented herein is a placental invasion model with chorionic villus-like structures seeded with invasive extravillous cytotrophoblasts (EVTs) and a perfusable vascular channel. Collectively, these models facilitate the exploration of placental morphogenesis and function throughout various stages of pregnancy. They offer a valuable tool for probing placental dysfunctions and assessing drug safety, ultimately contributing to advancements in fetal-maternal health. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The placenta is an essential organ in pregnancy and is responsible for a variety of phenomena that assure the survival of the fetus. However, many women suffer from negative pregnancy outcomes due to placental disorders, such as preeclampsia, or due to the crossing of unsafe compounds through the placenta to the fetus. Trophoblasts are the most notable placental cell type originating from the fetus and they have the capacity to mature into more specialized subtypes that are responsible for placental barrier function and placental development via invasion into the maternal tissue. In this work, we have designed three systems that either model placental barrier function or trophoblast invasion by culturing primary endothelial cells with differentiated trophoblast cells on a gel-based device. Using the barrier models, it is possible to assess the rate of transport of different compounds that may be present in the mother’s blood to the fetus, to assess their safety. Whereas the invasion model has the capacity to model the genesis of the placenta and therefore may be used to shed light on the causes for placental dysfunctions at the early stage of pregnancy.

A indoleamina 2,3-dioxigenase (IDO) é uma enzima, produzida pelas células trofoblásticas e, por sua capacidade de catabolizar o triptofano, inibe a proliferação das células T maternas, participando desta forma como importante mecanismo da tolerância materno-fetal. Contudo, pouco se sabe se a ação da IDO é influenciada por outras substâncias presentes no micro-ambiente uterino e, por esta razão, formulou-se a hipótese de que esta enzima poderia ter sua ação alterada nesse contexto e, desta forma, avaliou-se o comportamento da expressão da IDO frente à adição de alguns desses componentes presentes no útero gestante. Neste trabalho, células uterinas, de placentas e de embriões de ratas e camundongos fêmeas prenhes e não prenhes foram mantidas em cultivo e a elas adicionadas estradiol, progesterona, interferon , triptofano e 1-metil-D- triptofano, avaliando-se a expressão da IDO pela técnica de citometria de fluxo nos períodos de 4, 24 e 48 horas. Os resultados demonstraram que as diferenças mais significativas na expressão da IDO entre as ratas prenhes e não prenhes, foram observadas após a adição de progesterona (19,24%), interferon (11.22%) e triptofano (23,53%), nas ratas prenhes. Já nos camundongos fêmeas prenhes e não prenhes, as maiores expressões de IDO foram observadas no primeiro grupo pela adição de progesterona (11,33%), estradiol (9,98%) e interferon (21,78%). Considerando esses resultados, podemos concluir que a expressão da IDO pelas células uterinas, placentárias e embrionárias em cultivo sofre influência dos fatores testados, o que permite novas hipóteses para melhor compreensão da participação dessa enzima na tolerância materno-fetal, particularmente em relação a sua interação com hormônios e citocinas presentes no útero gestante. Além disso, poderá colaborar na elaboração de possíveis tratamentos de enfermidades, relacionadas à manutenção e sucesso da gestação onde haja envolvimento do sistema imunológico materno e dos mecanismos de tolerância. / Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is an enzyme produced by trophoblast cells and due to its ability to catabolize tryptophan, inhibits the proliferation of maternal T cells, thus playing an important role as one of the mechanisms of maternal-fetal tolerance. However, little is known whether the action of IDO is influenced by substances present in the pregnant uterine microenvironment. This study evaluated the behavior of the IDO expression in cultured placental and embryonic cells from mice and rats in face of the addition of estradiol, progesterone, interferon, tryptophan and 1-methyl-D-tryptophan, by flow cytometry, at 4, 24 and 48 hours periods. The results showed that high expressions of IDO were observed in pregnant rats cells after the addition of progesterone (19.24%), interferon (11.22%) and tryptophan (23.53%). In mice, high expressions of IDO were observed in the pregnant group cells by the addition of progesterone (11.33%), estradiol (9.98%) and interferon- (21.78%). Considering these results, we may conclude that the expression of IDO by cultured placental and embryonic cells from mice and Wistar rats is indeed influenced by factors present in pregnant uterus, which provides additional information to better understand IDO role in the maternal-fetal tolerance, particularly on its interactions with reproductive hormones and cytokines. Additionally, it may contribute to the establishment of possible treatments for pregnancy-losses related to the maternal immune system response and mechanisms of tolerance.

Objetivo: Confeccionar curvas de normalidade do volume e dos índices de vascularização placentária segundo a idade gestacional (IG) e o peso fetal estimado (PFE). Métodos: Durante o período compreendido entre março e novembro de 2007 foi realizado estudo observacional transversal envolvendo 280 gestantes com idades gestacionais compreendidas entre 12 a 38 semanas. As gestantes foram submetidas à ultra-sonografia para avaliação do volume placentário tridimensional calculado pelo método VOCAL com quantificação da vascularização placentária por meio dos índices vasculares: índice de vascularização (IV), índice de vascularização e fluxo (IVF) e índice de fluxo (IF), usando-se o power Doppler. Os critérios de inclusão foram gestações únicas com idade gestacional confirmada à ultra-sonografia, sem doenças maternas e/ou malformações fetais. Foram derivadas equações matemáticas para as curvas do volume placentário e dos índices vasculares (IF, IV e IFV) por meio de modelo de regressão linear, assim como os percentis 10, 50 e 90 para volume placentário em relação à idade gestacional e o peso fetal estimado. Resultados: Foram incluídas no estudo 280 gestantes, das quais 14 (5%) foram excluídas por apresentarem intercorrências maternas, abortamento tardio e impossibilidade de obtenção dos dados no pósparto. Houve correlação significativa do volume placentário com a idade gestacional (r =0,572; p<0,001) e com o peso fetal estimado (r=0,505; p<0,001). O volume placentário médio variou de 83,0 cm3 para 12 semanas a 403,1 cm3 para 38 semanas. Os índices vasculares placentários não se correlacionaram com a idade gestacional, mantendo-se constante seus valores (IV vs. IG r=0,03, p=0,61; IF vs. IG r=0,03, p=0,58; VFI vs. IG r=0,06, p=0,27). Conclusão: Foram confeccionadas curvas de volume placentário segundo a idade gestacional e o peso fetal estimado, obtendo-se valores de referência. Diferentemente dos relatos prévios, os presentes resultados mostraram distribuição constante dos índices de vascularização em diferentes idades gestacionais. / Objectives: The purpose of this study was to construct normograms of placental volume and placental vascular indices in normal gestations according to gestational age and fetal weight by three dimensional ultrasound power Doppler. Methods: A study was performed with 280 normal pregnant women presenting 12 to 38 weeks of pregnancy, during the period between March and November 2007. Study patients were submitted to ultrasound examination and placental volume was obtained through VOCAL method. Placental perfusion was evaluated through three-dimensional power Doppler indices: (VI) vascularization index, (FI) flow index and (VFI) vascularization and flow index. The inclusion criteria were singleton pregnancies without known clinical complications or fetal abnormalities. Equations and regression coefficients for placental volume and vascular indices were calculated according to gestational age and fetal weight. The 10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles of volumes by gestational age and estimated fetal weight were calculated. Results: The sample studied consisted of 280 pregnant women, 14 (5%) of whom were excluded from the final analysis due to some presented problems, such as maternal clinical complications, late abortion or impossibility to obtain childbirth data. There was a statistically significant correlation between placental volumes, gestational age (r=0.572; p<0.001) and estimated fetal weight (r= 0.505; p< 0.001). Mean placental volume ranged from 83,0cm3 at 12 weeks to 403,1cm3 at 38. All placental vascular indices showed a constant distribution throughout gestational age. (VI vs. GA r=0, 03, p=0, 61; FI vs. GA r=0, 03, p=0, 58; VFI vs. GA r=0, 06, p=0,27). Conclusion: Normograms of placental volumes according to gestational age and estimated fetal weight were described, generating references values. Differently from previous reports, our results showed constant distributions of all 3D-power Doppler placental volumes according to gestational age.

As Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) ou proteínas do choque térmico são encontradas em todas as células e são classificadas de acordo com seu peso molecular. Dentre elas encontram-se as de 27, 60, 70, 90 e 110 kDa, sendo as mais estudadas no contexto da reprodução as da família 60 e 70. Essas proteínas são ditas como chaperoninas, em razão do seu importante papel no dobramento e desdobramento de outras proteínas celulares sem alterar sua conformação final, e são expressas frente a qualquer tipo de estresse como calor, vírus, bactéria, hormônios, diferenciação celular, etc, e influenciam nas respostas imune inata e adquirida. A placenta também expressa essas proteínas, uma vez que é um órgão de intenso estresse e diferenciação celular durante toda a gestação. Nesse estudo, busca-se avaliar a expressão ou não dessas proteínas na placenta bovina e para isso foram utilizadas 30 amostras de diferentes animais em estágios distintos de gestação, fixadas em formol tamponado a 10% e processadas pela técnica de imuno-istoquímica. O mesmo numero de amostras foi também processado para a análise de imuno-microscopia eletrônica de transmissão pelas técnicas de \"freeze-substitution\" e marcação por pós-embebição. Na imuno-istoquímica, as HSPs 60 e 70 foram localizadas nos trofoblastos, epitélio materno e células binucleadas. A expressão da HSP 60 foi maior no início declinando no segundo e terceiro terço. Já a expressão da HSP 70 manteve-se praticamente constante, evidenciando a forte expressão dessa proteína durante todo o período. Na análise de imuno-microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, ambas as famílias foram localizadas nas células binucleadas (núcleo, citoplasma e vesículas) e epitélio materno (núcleo e citoplasma) em todos os terços gestacionais. O perfil das proteínas estudadas na placenta bovina foi diferente quando comparada à placenta humana, pois nesta última, a intensidade da expressão para a HSP 70 diminuiu com o decorrer da gestação enquanto para a HSP 60 foi constante durante todo a gestação. Provavelmente essas diferenças podem estar relacionadas ao fato dessas amostras terem sido coletadas de mulheres com gravidez interrompidas e também pelo tipo de placentação distinta. A bovinocultura de corte é de extrema importância para a econômica para o Brasil e se faz necessário o conhecimento de fatores que possam melhorar suas características reprodutivas. Dessa forma os resultados obtidos nesse estudo contribuirão certamente de subsídio para experimentos futuros sobre o papel das Heat Shock Proteins na placenta bovina. / Heat Shock Proteins (HSP) can be found in any kind of cell. These proteins are classified according to their molecular weight and their known families include the HSP 27, 60, 70, 90 and 110 kDa. Among these, HSP 60 and 70 are the ones of interest in reproduction. They were known as chaperonines because of their capacity to fold and unfold other proteins into the cell, without changing their own conformation. They are expressed during several stress conditions likes virus and bacteria infections, hormones, heat, cellular differentiation, etc, and also take part signalizing for innate and acquired immune responses. Heat shock proteins are expressed in several tissues and organs, including the placenta. In this study we have evaluated the expression of these proteins in the bovine placenta, using thirty samples from different animais with distinct gestational periods, fixed in 10% formalin and processed for immunohistochemistry. The same numbers of samples were processed for immunoelectron microscopy using freeze-substitution and post embedding labeling techniques. The immunohistochemistry results show the expression of HSP 60 and 70 in trophoblasts, maternal epithelia and binucleated cells. The HSP 60 expression was higher in the beginning of gestation, becoming lower during the second and third trimester. Heat shock protein 70 expression were practically constant throughout the gestation. The immunoelectron microscopy analysis revealed that both HSP 60 and 70 were located in the cytoplasm and nucleio binucleated cells and maternal epithelia from the beginning to the end of pregnancy. The immunolocalization of HSP 60 and 70 in the bovine placenta were distinct from the ones found in studies on women, probably due to the differences of the placentation type and to the fact that those samples were collected from abnormal or discontinuous pregnancy. Beef production in Brazil is an important economical activity and studies to improve the bovine reproductive characteristics are necessary and must be expended, therefore our results certainly contributes for further studies on HSP function during pregnancy in this species.

A tolerância materno-fetaI continua a ser um intrigante enigma imunológico. Algumas teorias têm sido propostas sobre o estabelecimento deste estado, tais como a produção de moléculas solúveis como HLA-G (na gestação humana) por células fetais que inibiriam a atividade de células do sistema imune inato. Além da secreção de hormônios; liberação de citocinas e de alguns fatores pelo trofoblasto que induziriam alterações no micro-ambiente placentário favorecendo o sucesso da gestação. A tolerãncia materno-fetal parece ser resultar da interação de eventos específicos ou não da gestação. Neste contexto, a indoleamina 2,3-dioxigenase (IDO), uma enzima com transcrição induzida pelo INF-y, tem sua atividade relacionada com o estabelecimento de estado de tolerância materno frente a antígenos fetais em mulheres e em camundongas. A IDO catabolisa o triptofano, um aminoácido essencial, do micro-ambiente placentário. Desta forma, células T ativadas no tecido placentário não conseguem proliferar estacionando na fase G1 do ciclo celular, ma forma de regulação da resposta imune materna. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo analisar as concentrações de triptofano e seus produtos de catabolismo no tecido placentário bovino em gestações normais e de fetos donados. Homogenatos de tecidos placentários provenientes de gestações normais (n=29) e de fetos donados (n=5) foram analisados por cromatrografia líquida de alta performance (HPLC). O níveis de triptofano e quinurenina aumentaram com o avanço da idade gestacional; TRIPTOFANO: 479,33µM/L ±53,04ep; 745,87µM/L ±72,71ep; 983,39µM/L ±196,37ep no primeiro, segundo e terceiro trimestre da prenhez respectivamente; QUINURENINA: 15,13µM/L ±2,97ep; 25,26µM/L ±3,72ep; 52,77µM/L ±17,75ep no primeiro, segundo e terceiro trimestre da prenhez respectivamente. A razão quinurenina/triptofano (razão Q/T) não alterou durante a gestação (0.038 ±0.011ep, 0.035 ±0.005ep and 0.056 ±0,020ep; no primeiro, segundo e terceiro trimestre da prenhez respectivamente). Quando esses valores foram comparados à placentas provenientes de fetos clonados apresentaram-se menores, contudo sem diferenças estatísticas significantes. (0,031 ±0.003ep). Os valores de triptofano foram menores na gestação de clones (811,34µM/L ±232,14ep) bem como os encontrados de quinurenina (22,85µM/L ±4,09ep). Não houve diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre o terceiro trimestre gestacional de fetos normais quando comparados à gestação de clones neste contexto. O catabolismo de triptofano parece aumentar com o avanço da idade gestacional devido o aumento da concentração do aminoácido e de seus metabólitos (quinurenina), no entanto a razão Q/T não se alterou, sugerindo um aumento da atividade de IDO na placenta bovina para manutenção dos níveis de triptofano no micro-ambiente placentário. A presença de quinurenina na placenta bovina é um indicador da atividade da IDO neste tecido. / Maternal-fetal tolerance continues to be an intriguing immunological enigma. Some theories have been proposed about these phenomena such as the production of soluble molecules like HLA-G by fetal cells that would block some cells of the innate immune system and the secretion of cytokines, hormones and some factors by trophoblast cells that would induce changes in the placental microenvironment. Maternal tolerance is probably the consequence of a wide panel of mechanisms that may be or not pregnancy-specific. In this context, indoleamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO), an inducible INFy enzyme, is a candidate protein to be involved in placental tolerance, as suggested in some reports on women pregnancy. IDO seems to catabolise the tryptophan, an essential amino acid necessary to cell proliferation. This way, activated T-cells in placental tis sue cannot proliferate due to starvation of tryptophan in milieu and these cells undergo apoptosis. This change may be one of the ways maternal-fetal tolerance occurs. Our aim was to evaluate the levels of tryptophan and its degradation products in normal and cloned bovine pregnancy, observing possible changes in tryptophan catabolism during this period. Homogenates from normal placental tissue from cows with normal (n=29) and cloned pregnancy (n=5) were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatograph. Levels of tryptophan and kinurenine reached their highest levels through of time of pregnancy; TRIPTOPHAN: 479,33µM/L ±53,04ste; 745,87µM/L ±72,71ste; 983,39µM/L ±196,37ste early. middle and late pregnancy respectively; KINURENINE: 15,13µM/L ±2,97ste; 25,26µM/L 3,72ste; 52,77µM/L ±17,75ste early. middle and late pregnancy respectively. The ratios of kynurenine to tryptophan does not increased during pregnancy (0.038 ±0.011ste, 0.035 ±0.005ste and 0.056 ±0,020ste; early, middle and late pregnancy respectively). When these values were compared to cloned pregnancy they showed lower values in these animais, however they were not statiscally significant (0,031 ±0.003ste). Tryptophan values were lower in cloned pregnancy (811,34µM/L ± ±232, 14ste) as well kinurenine (22,85µM/L ±4,09stde). There was no statiscal difference between normal late pregnancy and cloned pregnancy in this mater. The presence of kinurenine in bovine placental tissue is one indicator that IDO could be expressed in bovine placenta and indicate an IDO activity in this site.

O imprinting genômico, processo regulado epigeneticamente segundo o qual os genes se expressam de acordo com sua origem parental (paterna ou materna), está envolvido no desenvolvimento placentário. Na região cromossômica 11p15.5 encontram-se vários genes importantes para o desenvolvimento fetal e da placenta, os quais são regulados por duas principais regiões controladoras de imprinting (ICR1 e 2) onde se encontram as regiões diferencialmente metiladas H19DMR e KvDMR1, respectivamente. O imprinting genômico e a inativação aleatória do cromossomo X são processos epigenéticos presentes em mamíferos placentários. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo principal verificar a presença de mosaicismo do perfil epigenético entre tecidos extraembrionários de estágios precoces da gravidez (primeiro trimestre), e em vilosidade coriônica de placentas a termo (terceiro trimestre). Foram coletadas amostras de 10 gestações de primeiro trimestre (vilosidade coriônica, âmion, membrana de cordão umbilical e tecido embrionário) e 14 de terceiro trimestre (vilosidade coriônica), das quais 10 foram consideradas como controles e quatro utilizadas para estudo de mosaicismo restrito à vilosidade coriônica (coleta de amostras de todos os cotilédones). Após extração do DNA, foi utilizado o Método de Digestão Enzimática Sensível à Metilação Associada à PCR em Tempo Real para o estudo do padrão de metilação da KvDMR1 e da H19DMR em diferentes tecidos do primeiro trimestre gestacional e em tecido placentário do terceiro trimestre. O padrão de inativação do cromossomo X foi avaliado em todos os cotilédones de duas placentas a termo, de fetos do sexo feminino, por meio do ensaio do receptor de andrógeno humano (HUMARA assay), utilizando eletroforese capilar, e com acréscimo de um novo marcador de inativação do cromossomo X (ICX1). Na análise estatística foram utilizados o teste t não pareado, teste de Turkey e teste t pareado. A média de metilação da KvDMR1 das amostras de vilosidade coriônica do primeiro trimestre gestacional foi estatisticamente diferente da média de metilação do terceiro trimestre. Enquanto que a metilação da H19DMR não apresentou diferença estatística entre amostras de vilosidade coriônica do primeiro e do terceiro trimestre gestacionais. Com relação ao mosaicismo, a KvDMR1 não apresentou variação com relação ao tamanho ou a posição dos cotilédones, enquanto que a H19DMR apresentou diferença estatisticamente significativa na média de metilação com relação ao tamanho dos cotilédones e ao posicionamento nos quadrantes; em consequência da hipometilação em cotilédones pertencentes a uma das placentas estudadas. Não foram observadas diferenças estatisticamente significativas na média de metilação da KvDMR1 e da H19DMR entre diferentes tecidos das amostras do primeiro trimestre gestacional. No entanto, a comparação entre tecidos pareados de um mesmo indivíduo mostrou que a metilação não é correspondente entre os tecidos. Os dados obtidos mostram que o imprinting genômico provavelmente é um processo dinâmico, que evolui ao longo da gestação, estando relacionado a formação e ao amadurecimento da placenta. No presente estudo foi possível verificar que cotilédones de uma mesma placenta apresentam diferentes padrões de inativação do cromossomo X. Diferenças que podem ser explicadas pela expansão clonal das células trofoblásticas progenitoras com o cromossomo X paterno ou o cromossomo X materno inativo. Devido à variabilidade epigenética, exames em tecidos placentários devem considerar as diferenças intra-placentárias e as diferenças entre tecidos embrionários e extraembrionários. / Genomic imprinting, a mechanism of allele-specific expression depending on parental origin, is an epigenetic process that regulates the expression of many genes involved in placental development. Several important genes for fetal and placental growth are located on the human chromosome region 11p15.5, which are regulated by two imprinting control regions (ICR1 e 2), which have the differentially methylated regions H19DMR and KvDMR1, respectively. Genomic imprinting and random inactivation of X chromosome are two epigenetic processes present in placental mammals. The present study aimed to verify the presence of epigenetic mosaicism between extra-embryonic and embryonic tissues from early stages of pregnancy (first trimester), and in chorionic villi of term placentas (third trimester). Samples were collected from 10 pregnancies in the first trimester (chorionic villous, amnion, umbilical cord membrane, and embryonic tissue) and 14 from third trimester (chorionic villus sampling), of which 10 were considered as controls and four used to study mosaicism restricted to chorionic villi (sampling of all cotyledons). After DNA extraction, we used real time PCR associated to enzymatic restriction with a methylation sensitive enzyme to study the methylation pattern of KvDMR1 and H19DMR in different tissues from first trimester and placental third trimester tissue. The pattern of X chromosome inactivation was evaluated in all cotyledons from two term placentas of female fetuses, using the human androgen receptor (HUMARA) assay, capillary electrophoresis, and adding a new X chromosome inactivation (ICX1) marker. Unpaired and paired t and Turkey tests were used in statistical analysis. The average methylation of KvDMR1 of chorionic villi samples in first trimester was statistically different from average methylation of the third trimester. While the methylation of H19DMR showed no statistically significant difference between chorionic villi samples in the first and third trimester of pregnancy. In relation to the mosaicism, the KvDMR1 methylation did not vary in respect to the size or position of the cotyledons, while H19DMR showed statistically significant difference in average methylation relative to the size of the cotyledons, to the position in quadrants, due to the hypomethylation in cotyledons from one studied placenta. There were no statistically significant differences in the mean methylation KvDMR1 and H19DMR among different tissues from the first trimester of pregnancy, however, the comparison between paired tissues from the same individual showed that the methylation is different between tissues. The data from this study showed that genomic imprinting is probably a dynamic process and evolved across human pregnancy. This process is probable connected to placenta formation and maturation. We observed different patterns of X chromosome inactivation in cotyledons from the same placenta. This difference could be explained by clonal expansion of a limited number of trophoblastic progenitor cells with either an inactive maternal or paternal X chromosome. Due to the epigenetic variability, placental tissue examinations must consider the differences intra-placental and differences between embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues.