Les mécanismes à l’origine du maintien de la forte diversité locale des arbres des forêts tropicales humides constituent encore une énigme pour les scientifiques. Cette thèse a pour but d’étudier et de comprendre certains facteurs biotiques et abiotiques qui influencent l’assemblage des communautés des forêts tropicales humides d’Amazonie. A l’aide d’une approche empirique conduite dans les forêts tropicales de Guyane française et du Loreto au Pérou, de nombreuses expériences de terrain ont été mises en place dans le but d’apporter des éléments de réponse sur les mécanismes impliqués dans le maintien de la diversité des communautés d’arbres et d’insectes des forêts amazoniennes. Dans un premier temps, cette thèse permet de souligner l’importance des pressions biotiques exercées sur les communautés d’arbres. En effet, les communautés d’insectes peuvent influencer la composition des communautés d’arbres le long d’un gradient environnemental conduisant à des compromis entre la défense et la croissance. Ces compromis ou tradeoff permettent de maintenir la coexistence des espèces de forêts tropicales humides en favorisant la spécialisation des arbres à leur habitat (Chapitre 1, Annexe 3). Cependant, de nombreux facteurs peuvent engendrer des variations dans les compromis d’allocation exhibés par les plantes, ce qui peut compliquer la validité de ces résultats. Dans ce sens, nous avons souligné l’influence du rôle de la cascade trophique et l’existence chez certaines espèces d’arbres de stratégies d’évitement des insectes (Chapitre 2). Dans un second temps, nous avons montré que les filtres environnementaux et les distances géographiques favorisent un fort turnover de la composition des arthropodes des forêts tropicales (chapitre 3, Annexe 2). Les résultats de cette étude ont des implications fondamentales sur les mécanismes qui expliquent la structuration des communautés d’insectes herbivores. Nous avons souligné l’importance de l’interaction des communautés des insectes herbivores et de leurs plantes associées. De plus, des prédictions sont présentées sur le degré de spécialisation des insectes à leur plante-hôte (Annexe 3), notamment sur les implications possibles dans les compromis d’allocation chez les plantes. Finalement, des perspectives de recherche sont proposées en vue de poursuivre ces travaux de recherche, et notamment des extensions de mes expériences vers d’autres régions tropicales et tempérées et l’intégration de la phylogénie pour comprendre des mécanismes de coévolution entre communautés d’arbres et insectes. Nous proposons également une intégration des résultats de cette thèse dans les stratégies locales et régionales de conservation des forêts tropicales du bassin amazonien. / The mechanisms underlying the maintenance of local diversity of trees in tropical rainforests remain under debate. This dissertation aims to study and understand some biotic and abiotic factors that may influence both tree and insect community assembly in lowland tropical forests of Amazonia. I used an empirical approach to study communities of trees and insects in tropical forests of French Guiana and Peru, to address the extent to which insect herbivores contribute to the turnover of tree species across strong environmental gradients. In Chapter 1, I studied how herbivorous insect communities can influence the composition of tree communities along an environmental gradient by reinforcing tradeoffs between defense and growth that promote habitat specialization (Chapter 1, Appendix 3). The complicated variation in the patterns of growth and defense from this study led me to pursue further observations of an alternative plant defense strategy of time-avoidance of herbivores, which I examined in detail in Chapter 2. I found evidence for coordinated leaf production in some tree species that was consistent with the satiation of herbivores, suggesting that multiple interactions between plants and their herbivores may be responsible for patterns of habitat specialization in trees. In the second part of the dissertation, I examined insect herbivore communities in detail to test for turnover in species composition across geographic and environmental gradients. In Chapter 3, I present evidence for substantial beta-diversity in arthropod communities throughout lowland Amazonian forests. In the discussion I propose research perspectives to complete this research, including the extension of observations to compare tropical and temperate regions and the integration of molecular phylogenetics information to study coevolution of plant lineages and their insect herbivores. I conclude with suggestions for the integration of the results of this thesis in local and regional strategies for the preservation and conservation of tropical forests in the Amazon basin.

The broad aim of the work described in this thesis was to use the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) defective rmc tomato to explore the development and function of different types of fungus-plant interfaces (phenotypes) and to characterize the cellular modifications preceding colonization of rmc by a range of different AM fungi. Three main patterns of colonization with rmc have been described: 1) Pen- phenotype in which the AM fungus is restricted to the root surface with several attempts to penetrate the epidermal cells without success; 2) Coiphenotype where AM fungi penetrate the epidermis but cannot develop cortical colonization; and 3) Myc+ phenotype (with G. intraradices WFVAM23), where the AM fungus penetrates the cortex and forms a “normal” colonization after a delayed penetration of the epidermal cells (Review of literature). Little is known about cellular interactions, nutrient transfer or the ability of the fungi to complete their life cycles in the different phenotypes. These aspects were the main foci of this work. In addition further fungal isolates were screened to asses their ability to colonize rmc. The first experiments involved compartmented pots to follow the fungal life cycle, production of external mycelium and spores in the different rmc phenotypes (Chapter 3). The results showed that in the Pen- and Coiphenotypes, AM fungi are unable to form spores to complete the life cycle. However, in the Coi-phenotype, the fungus remained alive up to week 18, suggesting that some C transfer occurred. The fungus forming the Myc+ phenotype, G. intraradices WFVAM23, was able to produce spores, although they were significantly smaller than those produced with the wild-type tomato. The results suggested that arbuscules are essential for completion of the fungal life cycle. Labeled 32P was used to determine whether arbuscules are also essential for P transfer (Chapter 4). A compartmented pot system was used in which only fungal hyphae but not roots could obtain 32P. 32P was found in the shoots of rmc inoculated with S. calospora (Coi- phenotype), indicating that interfaces other than arbuscules can be involved in transfer of P. A nurse pot system was used to obtain synchronized colonization to determine how long AM fungi stay alive during the interactions with rmc and to elucidate the cellular modifications preceding colonization of rmc by a range of different AM fungi (Chapter 5). The results showed that rmc did attract the AM fungi, that the plant nucleus moved to the middle of the plant cell only after fungal penetration of plant roots and that callose deposition in rmc was not involved in blocking the AM fungi. Fourteen AM fungi with different taxonomic affiliations and fourteen different G. intraradices isolates were screened to try to relate phylogeny of AM fungi with phenotypes in rmc (Chapter 6). There were a large number of interactions, depending on the inoculated AM fungi, and although there were some similarities in the rmc phenotypes within phylogenetic groups, there was no clear relationship between phylogeny and development of interactions with rmc. This study showed the following. 1) Arbuscules/arbusculate coils are necessary for the completion of the AM fungal cycle. However, intraradical hyphae also participate in transfer of both P and C as demonstrated with the Coi- phenotype. 2) rmc clearly attracted AM fungi and the fungi stay alive and induce plant cellular responses such as nuclear movement only after penetrating rmc roots. 3) Plant defense responses such as callose deposition are not involved in blocking AM fungi in rmc; and 4) there was no relationship between the phenotypes described in rmc and phylogeny of the Glomeromycota. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1292816 / Thesis(Ph.D.)-- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2007.

In this thesis, I examine variation in occurrence and performance of glabrous and trichome-producing plants of the perennial herb Arabidopsis lyrata. I combine field studies and genetic analysis to (1) examine the function of trichomes as a resistance character in natural populations, (2) compare the magnitude of population differentiation in trichome-production and at putatively neutral marker loci, (3) examine the molecular genetic basis of trichome-production, and (4) quantify the effects of herbivore removal on population growth and relative performance of glabrous and trichome-producing plants. In a survey of 30 populations of A. lyrata in Norway and Sweden, I documented spatiotemporal variation in damage from insect herbivores. With few exceptions, glabrous plants were more damaged by herbivorous insects than trichome-producing plants in polymorphic populations. Damage levels varied substantially among populations and among years. The intensity of herbivory quantified as mean leaf removal to glabrous plants was higher in polymorphic populations than in monomorphic glabrous populations. Within the Swedish range, populations were more strongly differentiated at the locus coding for glabrousness than at eight putatively neutral isozyme loci. This is consistent with the hypothesis that trichome production is subject to divergent selection. A study of the genetic basis of trichome production showed that glabrousness was associated with mutations in an orthologue to GLABROUS1, a regulatory gene known to cause glabrousness in A. thaliana. Comparative data indicate that the genetic basis of glabrousness varies among populations. Experimental removal of insect herbivores in a natural A. lyrata population increased population growth rate and the relative fitness of the glabrous morph. The results suggest that insect herbivory may influence both population dynamics and selection on trichome production in A. lyrata.

No description available.

Vitis vinifera L. représente l’une des cultures les plus répandues dans les pays producteurs de vin, laquelle est soumise à de nombreuses contraintes environnementales pouvant favoriser l’émergence des maladies de dépérissement du bois (MDB). La famille des Botryosphaeriaceae est responsable du Botryosphaeria dieback, provoquant des chancres et des nécroses qui conduisent à une dépréciation de la qualité du vin, voire à la mort des ceps. Les méthodes de lutte sont peu efficaces. Sept espèces sont retrouvées dans le vignoble français dont B. dothidea, D. intermedia, D. mutila, D. seriata, Do. viticola, N. parvum et L. viticola. Nous avons étudié différents traits d’histoire de vie de ces agents pathogènes : (i) leur agressivité in planta, (ii) leur adaptation à des contraintes environnementales (e.g. température, fongicides), (iii) la présence de mycovirus, pour acquérir des connaissances sur leur pouvoir adaptatif face aux contraintes environnementales et expliquer la variabilité de leur agressivité. En complément, l’évaluation de la sensibilité de cultivars de Vitis face à une infection par N. parvum et D. seriata a été réalisée, et le potentiel de défenses de différents cépages (Ugni Blanc, Cabernet-Sauvignon et Merlot) a été étudié. L’ensemble des travaux menés ont permis de révéler des espèces très agressives telles que N. parvum et L. viticola par rapport à D. seriata, lors d’inoculations en serre sur des boutures. Les températures optimales de croissance déterminées montrent que certaines espèces (ex. Lasidiplodia spp.) sont mieux adaptées à des températures élevées (33°C). Par ailleurs, la sensibilité de 65 souches et génotypes a été testée pour 9 fongicides avec des modes d’action différents (inhibiteurs de la respiration mitochondriale, de la biosynthèse des stérols, du cytosquelette, multi-sites, etc.). De nombreuses espèces sont peu ou pas sensibles à certains de ces fongicides et des souches résistantes ont été trouvées avec un facteur de résistance pouvant atteindre plus de 1000. D’autre part, la détection de mycovirus au sein des 65 isolats a permis d’identifier la présence de 6 mycovirus, dont Neofusicoccum luteum mitovirus 1 et Neofusicoccum luteum fusavirus 1. L’évaluation du potentiel de défense des trois cultivars Vitis face à une infection par N. parvum et D. seriata a montré des réponses différentes entre cépages et en fonction de l’agent pathogène. In fine, des analyses croisant les différents traits d’histoire de vie et les interactions plante-pathogènes ont été faites, et l’ensemble des résultats nous a fourni de nouvelles pistes d’étude pour lutter contre ces agents pathogènes. / Vitis vinifera L. is largely cultivated in countries producing wine but an increase in grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) have been observed due to the attack of several fungal pathogens including those belonging to the Botryosphaeriaceae family (Botryosphaeria dieback). Seven species were isolated in the French vineyards B. dothidea, D. intermedia, D. mutila, D. seriata, Do. viticola, N. parvum and L. viticola. Nowadays, no efficient products are available to control these diseases. Studying, different life traits of 65 strains of different genotypes of the Botryosphaeriaceae’s family, known to have members displaying different aggressiveness, would lead to a better understanding of these wood pathogens. Their in planta aggressiveness, their adaptation towards environmental pressures (temperature, fungicides), and the detection of mycoviruses were carried out. In order to have a better comprehension of the interaction within the plant, the expression analysis of genes involved in the plant defense were assayed upon 3 cultivars (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Ugni-Blanc) but also on two species (N. parvum and D. seriata). L. viticola, and N. parvum, were shown to be more aggressive than D. seriata and. L. viticola is more adapted to higher temperature (33°C). Moreover, the strains tested with 9 different fungicides (mitochondrial respiratory, sterol biosynthesis, cytoskeleton or multisite inhibitors, etc.) showed lower sensitivity within some species, (with a resistance factor reaching a 1000). In addition, at least 6 mycoviruses were characterized. Amongst them, two mycoviruses were isolated from a N. luteum strain and were fully sequenced (Neofusicoccum luteum mitovirus 1 and Neofusicoccum luteum fusavirus 1). The three cultivars infected with either N. parvum or D. seriata showed different gene responses between themselves but also between the different strains inoculated. These different studies are giving us more information upon these Botryospheriaceae fungi, to find out new efficient or complementary methods in order to control GTDs

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:30:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 441229 bytes, checksum: 8626c1c98e87a8e58f45c0681e8bd4ec (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-28 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The introduction of exotic mite pest of citrus, Schizotetranychus hindustanicus (Hirst) in city of Boa Vista, Roraima in 2008, poses risks to production and marketing of citrus in Brazil. Information about this mite pest is scarce, however, a risk assessment for S. hindustanicus has been drafted, as well as information collected about the biological aspects of the mite and their hosts and the damage to the definition and the establish populations in food substrates. We used an appropriates qualitative methodology to understand their potential for entry, establishment, spread and potential economic impact, to carry out the risk assessment. For the physiological tests the loss of chlorophyll, nitrogen and specific leaf area of orange ​​plants attacked were quantified. To test substrates in alternative food plants, we used acacia, Acacia mangium, and neem, (Azadirachta indica A. Juss). The effect of the S. hindustanicus feeding on orange Pear trees resulted in a loss of about 30% of chlorophyll but did not affect its nitrogen content and the specific leaf area of ​​orange trees. Acacia plants are not conducive to population growth of S. hindustanicus, while in neem plants there are the survival of active forms of the mite , reproductive activity and damaging to the leaves. Considering the risk assessment, the potential introduction of mite in other states of Brazil, infested by fruit coming from Roraima, seems to be low. However we most be attentive to the commuting ofpeople who may be potential carriers of infested plant material. However If, somehow, the mite is introduced and estabilished in states like as São Paulo, Bahia and Sergipe, the potential economic impact could be considered high, due to the damage caused of the fruit (produce) and its loss in market value, increased control cost and restrictions to nationwide markets. / A introdução do ácaro praga exótico dos citros, Schizotetranychus hindustanicus (Hirst), na cidade de Boa Vista-Roraima em 2008, representa riscos à comercialização e produção da citricultura no Brasil. As informações sobre esse ácaro-praga são escassas, para tanto, foi elaborada uma avaliação de risco para o S. hindustanicus assim como obtidas informações a respeito de aspectos biológicos do ácaro quanto a seus hospedeiros e à tipificação do dano e estabelecimento de populações em substratos alimentares. Utilizou-se de metodologia qualitativa adequada para entender seu potencial de entrada, estabelecimento, dispersão e possível impacto econômico, para efetivar a avaliação de risco.Para os testes fisiológicos, foi quantificado a perda de clorofila, nitrogênio e a área foliar específica de plantas de laranja atacadas. Para teste em substratos alimentares alternativos foram utilizadas as plantas de acácia, Acacia mangium, e nim, Azadirachta indica. O efeito da alimentação dos S. hindustanicus resulta na perda de cerca de 30% de clorofila, porém não afeta o teor de nitrogênio e a área foliar específica das folhas de laranja 'Pera'. As plantas de acácia não são favoráveis ao crescimento populacional de S. hindustanicus, enquanto que em plantas de nim há sobrevivência das formas ativas do ácaro, atividade reprodutiva e danos às folhas. Quanto a avaliação de risco, o potencial de introdução do ácaro em outros estados do Brasil , por frutos infestados provenientes de Roraima, parece ser baixo. Entretanto deve-se atentar ao trânsito de pessoas que podem ser potenciais transportadores de materiais vegetais infestados. Caso o ácaro seja introduzido e consiga se estabelecer em estados como São Paulo, Bahia, e Sergipe, o potencial de impacto econômico poderá ser considerado alto, devido aos danos ocasionados nos frutos e sua perda no valor comercial, aumento dos custos de controle e restrições de mercado nacionais.

MAGALHÃES, Vladimir Gonçalves. Prospecção bioquímica e molecular de fatores possivelmente envolvidos na defesa de feijão-de-corda [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] ao vírus do mosaico severo do caupi (CPSMV). 2011. 109 f. : Dissertação (Mestrado em Bioquímica)-Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2011. / Submitted by Eric Santiago (erichhcl@gmail.com) on 2016-07-15T14:36:03Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2011_dis_vgmagalhaes.pdf: 4392892 bytes, checksum: 571bbf928e7a06498a9e935694d2ab1d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-08-02T20:26:15Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2011_dis_vgmagalhaes.pdf: 4392892 bytes, checksum: 571bbf928e7a06498a9e935694d2ab1d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-02T20:26:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2011_dis_vgmagalhaes.pdf: 4392892 bytes, checksum: 571bbf928e7a06498a9e935694d2ab1d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Cowpea [(Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)] has a major socioeconomic importance in Northeastern Brazil. However, its production is low due abiotic and biotic factors. Amongst the biotic factors the cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV, Secoviridae family) has a great importance because it causes the most prevalent and serious virus disease that affects this crop in the country. Although there are resistant cultivars to CPSMV, the defense mechanisms involved is not understood. For this reason, a comparative study was conducted between resistant and susceptible cultivars, using two experimental approaches. In the first one, the biochemical approach, possible differences of enzyme activities related to oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase) and pathogenesis (β-1,3-glucanase and chitinase), in addition of phenyl amonium lyase, and H2O2 generation in the leaves of the cultivars Pitíuba (susceptible) and Macaibo (resistant) were analyzed. The secondary leaves were harvested at 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 h after treatment with CPSMV or carborundum (controls) and these above parameters were measures in the protein extracts obtained. It was shown that, in general, the response amongst the cultivars did not differ significantly, suggesting that the defense mechanisms of cowpea are different from the classic response of defense observed for several plant species. In the second approach, molecular, the nucleotide sequences of the genes that code for the translation initiation factors (eIF4E, eIF(iso)4E, eIF4G, eIF(iso)4G and nCBP) and the primary strucuture of the correspondent putative proteins were analyzed in order to search patterns of polymorphis between the studied cowpea cultivars that could be related to a constitutive defense conferred by recessive genes. After sequence analysis, it was found that eIF4E showed polymorphisms between cultivars, and, in at least two positions (68 and 108), there were differences between susceptible and resistant cultivars (Arg68/Pro68; Val108 or Pro108/Ala108). The molecular modeling revealed that differences in amino acid are located in two external loops close to the cap (m7G) binding domain, well reported in cases of recessive resistance within the Potyviridae family. Through immunodetection studies with the leaf extracts and the protein fractions obtained after the affinity chromatography on a Sepharose-7-metil-guanosina column, it was found that the amino acid mutations found did not impair the ability of eIF4E to bind to M7G in vitro. However, as it was observed two variants for eIF4E comparing the resistant and susceptible cultivars to CPSMV, at spatially neighboring regions, it could not be ruled out the hypothesis that this constitutive/recessive resistant trait is correlated with these mutations detected, which could impair, consequently, the in vivo interaction of eIF4E with the viral VPg. / O feijão-de-corda [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] tem grande importância socioeconômica no Nordeste brasileiro. Entretanto, sua produção é baixa devida a diversos fatores abióticos e bióticos. Dentre os fatôres bióticos, o vírus do mosaico severo do caupi (CPSMV, família Secoviridae) apresenta grande destaque, por causar a virose que mais acomete essa cultura no país. Embora existam cultivares resistentes ao vírus, não se sabe quais os mecanismos de defesa envolvidos. Por essa razão, foi elaborado um estudo comparativo entre cultivares resistentes e susceptíveis, utilizando duas abordagens experimentais. Na abordagem bioquímica, possíveis diferenças de atividades de enzimas relacionadas ao estresse oxidativo (dismutase do superóxido, peroxidase do ascorbato, peroxidase) e à patogênese (β-1,3-glucanase e quitinase), além da fenilamônia liase, e teores de H2O2 foram estudadas nos cultivares Pitiúba (susceptível) e Macaibo (resistente). Após tratamento com o CPSMV ou com apenas carborundum (plantas controles), foram realizadas coletas nos tempos de 6, 12, 24, 48 e 72 h, tendo sido realizadas as análises bioquímicas nos extratos protéicos obtidos das folhas secundárias. Foi verificado que, de maneira geral, a resposta entre os cultivares não diferiram significamente, sugerindo que os mecanismos de defesa de feijão-de-corda sejam diferentes da resposta clássica de defesa. Na segunda abordagem, molecular, as sequências nucleotídicas dos genes codificantes para os fatores de iniciação de tradução (eIF4E, eIF(iso)4E, eIF4G, eIF(iso)4G e nCBP) e as sequências primárias putativas das proteínas correspondentes foram analisados, no intuito de se averiguar a existência de padrões de polimorfismos entre cultivares resistentes e susceptíveis, que pudessem estar relacionados à defesa constitutiva conferida por genes recessivos. Após análise das sequências, foi observado que eIF4E apresentava polimorfismos entre os cultivares, sendo que, em pelo menos duas posições nas sequências primárias putativas do fator (68 e 108), existiram diferenças entre cultivares susceptíveis e resistentes (Arg68/Pro68; Val108 ou Pro108/Ala108). A modelagem molecular revelou que as diferenças em aminoácidos situam-se em dois loops externos, próximos ao domínio de ligação ao capacete (m7G), bastante relatados em casos de resistência recessiva para a família Potyviridae. Através de estudos de imunodectecção posterior ao passo cromatográfico em coluna de afinidade, foi observado que as mudanças de aminoácidos não comprometiam, a capacidade de eIF4E em se ligar ao m7G in vitro. Entretanto, como foram observadas duas variantes para eIF4E, entre cultivares resistentes e susceptíveis ao CPSMV, em regiões próximas espacialmente, não se pode descartar a hipótese de que a resistência recessiva constitutiva esteja associada com essas mutações detectadas nessas sequências, que iriam modificar, consequentemente, a interação da VPg viral com eIF4E in vivo.

OLIVEIRA, Hermógenes David de. Toxinas protéicas de sementes de soja [Glycine Max (L.) Merr.]: aspectos moleculares e funcionais. 2009. 179 f. Tese (Doutorado em Bioquímica)-Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2009. / Submitted by Eric Santiago (erichhcl@gmail.com) on 2016-07-20T13:47:53Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_tese_hdoliveira.pdf: 22424370 bytes, checksum: c91e302e7e8a350dc5032a3db4a9415d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-08-02T20:35:22Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_tese_hdoliveira.pdf: 22424370 bytes, checksum: c91e302e7e8a350dc5032a3db4a9415d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-02T20:35:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_tese_hdoliveira.pdf: 22424370 bytes, checksum: c91e302e7e8a350dc5032a3db4a9415d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Soybean provides significant sources of fatty acids and proteins for human and animal nutrition and also has non-food uses. Conditions in almost all cultivated land are sub-optimal for plant growth as a result of the increasing incidence of diseases, even in developed agricultural systems. To meet these challenges, genes and proteins that control their resistance to a wide range of pathogens need to be identified and characterized to facilitate improvements in crop productivity. The main focus in this thesis has been to characterize (providing basic information about biochemical characteristics) and study the functional role of SYTX-2 (28 kDa) and SBTX (44 kDa), two toxic proteins isolated from soybean seeds, in plant defense against pathogens. The SYTX-2 was purified by a combination of ammonium sulphate fractionation and two chromatographic steps. Bidimensional electrophoresis of this protein revealed the presence of two spots (27.3 e 27.2 kDa), with isoeletric points values corresponding to 5.11 and 5.24, respectively, exhibiting the same N-terminal sequence (KTISSEDSPFFNCREK). SYTX-2 has also ribonuclease activity (1821.42 ± 3.34 UA. h-1 mgP), similar to that described in Vigna unguiculata leaves. The CD spectrum of SYTX-2 presents an alpha-beta profile spectrum, similar to the structure described to SBTX. Regarding to the temperature exposure, monitored by CD, it was observed that the structure of SYTX-2 is vulnerable to the temperatures above 40 ºC. The fluorescence spectra of Soyatoxin-2 marked a maximum emission of fluorescence at 323-333 nm and confirmed that the tertiary structure of this protein was correctly folded. SYTX-2 behaves as a hemilectin: it does not directly promote agglutination of red blood cells, but toxin-treated erythrocytes are readily agglutinated in the presence of anti-SYTX-2 antibodies. ELISA assays showed that SYTX-2 was exuded during seed imbibition, the maximum level of exuded toxin (6.16 ± 0.08 µg/seed) detected being at 18 h after the start of imbibition. The expression profiles of SYTX-2 in various soybean tissues were investigated with ELISA assay or Dot Blot analysis. The expression analysis suggested that SYTX-2 was clearly detected in seed coat, leaves, roots and also in stems. However, expression of SYTX-2 in roots is higher than that in leaves and stems. A strong induction of SYTX-2 expression was also observed in wounded leaves 6 h after treatment and it decreased thereafter. In vitro, antifungal activity of SYTX-2 was not detected against R. solani, Phomopsis sp. and F. solani f.sp glycines, but this protein inhibits C. albicans growth. Nematicidal effects of SYTX-2 were studied in vitro against Meloidogyne incognita nematode and the toxin (11µg/nematode) showed a high nematicidal activity, with the mortality of 85%, after six hours contact and of 100%, after 24 h of incubation. This work also describes the isolation, sequencing and functional analysis of cDNA (815 pb) encoding 27 kDa subunit of soybean toxin (SBTX). CDNA was amplified using a forward primer designed based on the N-terminal sequence of the toxin in combination of primer AP. The genomic location of the 27 kDa SBTX subunit SBTX was preliminarily determined with the mapped soybean ESTs database (www.phytozome.net) at Gm04 and Gm06 chromosome of soybean and thus may have two copies per genome. The deduced protein sequence of 219 amino acids (MW of mature protein 21.7 kDa, pI 9.3) included an N-terminal signal peptide. EST’s encoding 27 kDa subunit SBTX were present in cotyledons, leaves, and seedlings and the expression of 27 kDa subunit SBTX was also induced in tissues by P. sojae and F. solani f. sp. glycines infection and by abiotic stress. In addition to these blocks, the 27 kDa deduced protein sequence contains a putative Ser/Tyr/Thr phosphorylation and also contains eight potential N-linked glycosylation sites and a threonine/serine-rich region which is a potential site for attachment of O-linked carbohydrate. Potential sites for pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin hydrolysis were also detected. The results add a new dimension to toxins SBTX and SYTX functionalities and support the concept that these proteins act protecting soybean against pathogens / A soja (Glycine max) é uma espécie de grande valor econômico para o Brasil dada a multiplicidade de uso de seus grãos na alimentação animal e na indústria. Embora o Brasil seja o segundo maior produtor mundial dos grãos, as perdas na produtividade em campo ainda são consideráveis, principalmente àquelas causadas por nematóides do gênero Meloidogyne e por fungos fitopatogênicos. Mesmo com a existência de alternativas químicas para o controle dessas espécies, bem como com a existência de genótipos resistentes, as perdas agrícolas ainda são consideráveis, mostrando que a busca por mecanismos naturais de resistência ambientalmente seguros são práticas necessárias para o controle de pragas e patógenos e para a melhoria na produtividade. Este trabalho objetivou caracterizar bioquímica e funcionalmente duas toxinas protéicas isoladas de sementes de soja, bem como avaliar os seus papéis na defesa contra patógenos de importância agronômica para essa espécie. Foi mostrado experimentalmente que SYTX-2 (28 kDa) é uma proteína ácida encontrada em duas isoformas (27,3 e 27,2 kDa) de pI’s 5,11 e 5,24, as quais apresentam a mesma extremidade NH2-Terminal (KTISSEDSPFFNCREK). A análise por dicroísmo circular mostrou que a SYTX-2 apresenta um espectro típico de proteínas que apresentam α-hélice e folhas-β, sendo essa estrutura semelhante àquela já descrita para a SBTX. Esses padrões são gradualmente perdidos quando a proteína é aquecida de 25 a 95 ºC. Os espectros de emissão em 280 e 295 nm (323 e 313 nm, máximo) mostraram padrões típicos de resíduos de triptofano presentes no interior da estrutura terciária. SYTX-2 é uma hemilectina capaz de aglutinar indiretamente eritrócitos de coelho em presença de anticorpos policlonais anti-SYTX-2, sendo essa atividade inibida por D-manose. Além disso, in vitro, SYTX-2 apresentou atividade ribonucleásica, cuja atividade específica (1821,42 ± 3,34 UA. h-1 mgP) foi semelhante àquela descrita para a ribonuclease de raízes de V. unguiculata. Foi observado que SYTX-2 está presente na casca das sementes em teores menores do que os observados para os cotilédones, além de se distribuir também em raízes, caules e folhas. As raízes jovens apresentam os maiores teores de SYTX-2 (62,62 ± 10,10 µg de SYTX-2/g de tecido) sendo essa expressão triplicada em tecidos adultos (195,12 ± 35,54 µg/g de tecido). Em pH 5,0 essa proteína é exsudada das sementes ao longo de 24 h, sendo o pico de exsudação mostrado 18 h após o contato com o tampão (6,16 ± 0,08 µgP de SYTX-2/semente ). Tal como descrito para muitas proteínas de defesa, SYTX-2 foi induzida 6 h após a injúria mecânica de folhas (de 6,7 para 10,46 µg de SYTX-2/ g de tecido), retornando aos valores normais 24 h após a lesão. In vitro SYTX-2 apresentou uma potente atividade nematicida contra M. incognita Raça 4, induzindo a mortalidade de 85% dos J2 6h após incubação com a proteína, e de 100% após 24 h. Essa toxina também foi capaz de inibir (20%) o crescimento de C. albicans, embora não tenha sido efetiva em inibir a germinação de esporos de fungos fitopatogênicos (R. solani, Phomopsis sp. e F. solani f.sp glycines). Este trabalho também descreve o isolamento, a clonagem e a caracterização do cDNA da subunidade de 27 kDa da SBTX (44 kDa). O cDNA foi isolado a partir de um pool de RNA extraído de sementes 15, 25 e 35 dias após a antese, utilizando iniciadores desenhados a partir do NH2-terminal das duas subunidades da proteína (27 e 17 kDa). Evidências experimentais sugerem fortemente que as duas subunidades da proteína são codificadas por genes diferentes. A subunidade de 27 kDa da SBTX apresenta um cDNA de 815 pb, composto por uma ORF de 660 nucleotídeos, codificante para uma proteína com 219 resíduos de aminoácidos. A sequência do cDNA da SBTX foi detectada em dois cromossomos (04 e 06) e a busca por EST’s para essa proteína, mostrou que além de ser expressa em todo o vegetal, níveis elevados de transcritos são observados após a infecção contra P. sojae e F. solani f. sp. glycines, evidenciando seu importante papel na defesa contra fungos fitopatogênicos. A sequência deduzida de aminoácidos da subunidade de 27 kDa apresenta um peptídeo sinal de 26 resíduos de aminoácidos, clivado para a produção da proteína madura, que apresenta, portanto, massa molecular de 21,7 kDa e pI 9,3, sendo uma proteína básica. Na sequência de aminoácidos da subunidade de 27 kDa também foram identificados: um resíduo de cisteína, envolvido na formação de uma ponte dissulfeto com a subunidade de 17 kDa, 11 sítios de fosforilação em Ser, Thr ou Tyr, 8 sítios de glicosilação para GlcNAc e um sítio para adição de oligossacarídeos tipo mucina (GalNAc). A toxina também apresenta sítios de clivagem para pepsina, tripsina e quimiotripsina que podem justificar a ausência de toxicidade observada em camundongos após administração oral. SYTX-2 e SBTX foram mostradas através de uma caracterização estrutural ainda mais completa que as descritas por Sousa (2006) e Siebra (2004) e as informações obtidas permitiram definir que essas proteínas são parte importante da defesa da soja contra fungos fitopatogênicos e nematóides. Além de inéditos e de extrema relevância, todos esses dados darão subsídios para estudos posteriores que objetivem, para SYTX-2, determinar sua microestrutura protéica e isolamento gênico e, para SBTX, realização de projetos futuros, visando o desenvolvimento de plantas transgênicas com uma maior resistência a fungos

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O feijÃo-de-corda [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] tem grande importÃncia socioeconÃmica no Nordeste brasileiro. Entretanto, sua produÃÃo à baixa devida a diversos fatores abiÃticos e biÃticos. Dentre os fatÃres biÃticos, o vÃrus do mosaico severo do caupi (CPSMV, famÃlia Secoviridae) apresenta grande destaque, por causar a virose que mais acomete essa cultura no paÃs. Embora existam cultivares resistentes ao vÃrus, nÃo se sabe quais os mecanismos de defesa envolvidos. Por essa razÃo, foi elaborado um estudo comparativo entre cultivares resistentes e susceptÃveis, utilizando duas abordagens experimentais. Na abordagem bioquÃmica, possÃveis diferenÃas de atividades de enzimas relacionadas ao estresse oxidativo (dismutase do superÃxido, peroxidase do ascorbato, peroxidase) e à patogÃnese (β-1,3-glucanase e quitinase), alÃm da fenilamÃnia liase, e teores de H2O2 foram estudadas nos cultivares PitiÃba (susceptÃvel) e Macaibo (resistente). ApÃs tratamento com o CPSMV ou com apenas carborundum (plantas controles), foram realizadas coletas nos tempos de 6, 12, 24, 48 e 72 h, tendo sido realizadas as anÃlises bioquÃmicas nos extratos protÃicos obtidos das folhas secundÃrias. Foi verificado que, de maneira geral, a resposta entre os cultivares nÃo diferiram significamente, sugerindo que os mecanismos de defesa de feijÃo-de-corda sejam diferentes da resposta clÃssica de defesa. Na segunda abordagem, molecular, as sequÃncias nucleotÃdicas dos genes codificantes para os fatores de iniciaÃÃo de traduÃÃo (eIF4E, eIF(iso)4E, eIF4G, eIF(iso)4G e nCBP) e as sequÃncias primÃrias putativas das proteÃnas correspondentes foram analisados, no intuito de se averiguar a existÃncia de padrÃes de polimorfismos entre cultivares resistentes e susceptÃveis, que pudessem estar relacionados à defesa constitutiva conferida por genes recessivos. ApÃs anÃlise das sequÃncias, foi observado que eIF4E apresentava polimorfismos entre os cultivares, sendo que, em pelo menos duas posiÃÃes nas sequÃncias primÃrias putativas do fator (68 e 108), existiram diferenÃas entre cultivares susceptÃveis e resistentes (Arg68/Pro68; Val108 ou Pro108/Ala108). A modelagem molecular revelou que as diferenÃas em aminoÃcidos situam-se em dois loops externos, prÃximos ao domÃnio de ligaÃÃo ao capacete (m7G), bastante relatados em casos de resistÃncia recessiva para a famÃlia Potyviridae. AtravÃs de estudos de imunodectecÃÃo posterior ao passo cromatogrÃfico em coluna de afinidade, foi observado que as mudanÃas de aminoÃcidos nÃo comprometiam, a capacidade de eIF4E em se ligar ao m7G in vitro. Entretanto, como foram observadas duas variantes para eIF4E, entre cultivares resistentes e susceptÃveis ao CPSMV, em regiÃes prÃximas espacialmente, nÃo se pode descartar a hipÃtese de que a resistÃncia recessiva constitutiva esteja associada com essas mutaÃÃes detectadas nessas sequÃncias, que iriam modificar, consequentemente, a interaÃÃo da VPg viral com eIF4E in vivo. / Cowpea [(Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)] has a major socioeconomic importance in Northeastern Brazil. However, its production is low due abiotic and biotic factors. Amongst the biotic factors the cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV, Secoviridae family) has a great importance because it causes the most prevalent and serious virus disease that affects this crop in the country. Although there are resistant cultivars to CPSMV, the defense mechanisms involved is not understood. For this reason, a comparative study was conducted between resistant and susceptible cultivars, using two experimental approaches. In the first one, the biochemical approach, possible differences of enzyme activities related to oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase) and pathogenesis (β-1,3-glucanase and chitinase), in addition of phenyl amonium lyase, and H2O2 generation in the leaves of the cultivars PitÃuba (susceptible) and Macaibo (resistant) were analyzed. The secondary leaves were harvested at 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 h after treatment with CPSMV or carborundum (controls) and these above parameters were measures in the protein extracts obtained. It was shown that, in general, the response amongst the cultivars did not differ significantly, suggesting that the defense mechanisms of cowpea are different from the classic response of defense observed for several plant species. In the second approach, molecular, the nucleotide sequences of the genes that code for the translation initiation factors (eIF4E, eIF(iso)4E, eIF4G, eIF(iso)4G and nCBP) and the primary strucuture of the correspondent putative proteins were analyzed in order to search patterns of polymorphis between the studied cowpea cultivars that could be related to a constitutive defense conferred by recessive genes. After sequence analysis, it was found that eIF4E showed polymorphisms between cultivars, and, in at least two positions (68 and 108), there were differences between susceptible and resistant cultivars (Arg68/Pro68; Val108 or Pro108/Ala108). The molecular modeling revealed that differences in amino acid are located in two external loops close to the cap (m7G) binding domain, well reported in cases of recessive resistance within the Potyviridae family. Through immunodetection studies with the leaf extracts and the protein fractions obtained after the affinity chromatography on a Sepharose-7-metil-guanosina column, it was found that the amino acid mutations found did not impair the ability of eIF4E to bind to M7G in vitro. However, as it was observed two variants for eIF4E comparing the resistant and susceptible cultivars to CPSMV, at spatially neighboring regions, it could not be ruled out the hypothesis that this constitutive/recessive resistant trait is correlated with these mutations detected, which could impair, consequently, the in vivo interaction of eIF4E with the viral VPg.

Com o propósito de contribuir para o esclarecimento dos mecanismos bioquímicos e moleculares envolvidos na resistência sistêmica adquirida (SAR) em plantas suscetíveis contra fitopatógenos, foram conduzidos estudos na interação Coffea arabica-Hemileia vastatrix. A indução de atividade de quitinases e b-1,3-glucanases e o envolvimento dessas enzimas na resistência sistêmica adquirida contra H. vastatrix foram avaliados em cafeeiro suscetível cultivar Mundo Novo (MN) após o tratamento com acibenzolar-S-metil (ASM) (200 mg de i.a./mL). O produto induziu aumento local e sistêmico das atividades de quitinases e b-1,3-glucanases nos tecidos foliares, a partir do primeiro e segundo dia da aplicação do indutor, respectivamente. As atividades enzimáticas atingiram níveis máximos de aumento nas plantas tratadas em relação ao controle, sete dias após a aplicação do ASM. Resistências local e sistêmica ao patógeno foram induzidas a partir do primeiro dia após o tratamento com ASM. A proteção e atividades enzimáticas foram detectadas até 35 dias, após aplicação do indutor. A indução de resistência local contra a ferrugem atingiu um nível máximo de 87% entre 7 e 14 dias. Níveis máximos de proteção sistêmica de 53 a 68% foram observados entre 2 e 21 dias após o tratamento de cafeeiro com o indutor. Neste intervalo de tempo foi observado, também, um aumento sistêmico máximo de atividade enzimática. Os resultados sugerem que o aumento de atividade dessas hidrolases está relacionado com a resistência local e sistêmica, induzida por ASM, em cafeeiro MN contra a ferrugem. Genes relacionados à SAR foram identificados em cafeeiro através de hibridização subtrativa por supressão (HSS), a partir de mRNAs isolados de plantas suscetíveis cv. MN, 72 h após o tratamento com ASM (200 mg i.a./mL). Os mecanismos de respostas de defesa associados à SAR ativada em MN foram comparados, através do isolamento de genes por HSS, com a resistência raça-cultivar específica observada no cafeeiro resistente Híbrido de Timor (HT), 72 h após a inoculação com H. vastatrix. Através da HSS, produziram-se duas bibliotecas de cDNAs subtraídas, enriquecidas de fragmentos de genes induzidos em MN pelo ASM (MN-ASM) ou ativados em HT pelo patógeno (HT-Hv). Os genes encontrados estão envolvidos em diversos processos relacionados à resistência contra fitopatógenos como: formação de espécies de oxigênio reativas, resposta de hipersensibilidade, morte celular programada, síntese e transporte de metabólitos antimicrobianos, percepção e transdução de sinal, síntese de proteínas relacionadas à patogênese, metabolismo de lipídeos e degradação controlada de proteínas. Foi identificado em HT-Hv um número maior de genes implicados em mecanismos de defesa (22%), do que em MN-ASM (16%). Na interação HT-Hv foi detectado um número maior de genes implicados na percepção e transdução de sinal (44%), do que em MN-ASM (30%). Entretanto, o número de genes codificadores de proteínas antimicrobianas foi maior no MN com resistência induzida (22%), do que no cafeeiro resistente HT inoculado com o patógeno (6%). Foram isolados de HT-Hv e MN-ASM, genes codificadores de b-1,3-glucanases e as seqüências completas puderam ser determinadas através da técnica RACE. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que a resistência em HT-Hv e MN-ASM ocorre através de mecanismos distintos. / Studies on the interaction Coffea arabica-Hemileia vastatrix were performed in order to contribute to the elucidation of biochemical and molecular mechanisms involved in systemic acquired resistance (SAR) developed in susceptible plants against pathogens. Induction of chitinase and b-1,3-glucanase activities and their involvement in systemic acquired resistance against H. vastatrix were evaluated in susceptible coffee plants cultivar "Mundo Novo" (MN) after treatment with acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM) (200 mg a.i./mL). The product induced local and systemic increases in chitinase and b-1,3-glucanase activities in leaf tissues, starting from the first and second days after inducer application, respectively. The increases in enzymatic activity reached their maximum levels in treated plants compared to control seven days after application of ASM. Induction of local and systemic resistance against pathogen was detected one day after ASM treatment. Protection and increases in enzyme activities were detected up to 35 days after product application. Induction of local resistance against coffee leaf rust reached a highest level of 87% between 7 and 14 days. Highest levels of systemic protection ranging from 53% to 68% were observed in coffee plants between 2 and 21 days after inducer treatment. During the same time frame maximum increases in systemic enzymatic activity were also observed. Results suggest that the increases in these hydrolase activities were correlated with the local and systemic resistance induced by ASM in coffee plants against coffee leaf rust. Genes related to SAR were identified in coffee plants by suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH), from mRNA isolated from susceptible plants cv. MN 72 h after treatment with ASM (200 mg a.i./mL). The mechanisms of defense responses associated with SAR activated in MN were compared through the isolation of genes by SSH, with the race-specific resistance observed in the resistant coffee plant "Híbrido de Timor" (HT) 72 h after the inoculation with H. vastatrix. By SSH technique two subtracted cDNA libraries were constructed enriched for gene fragments induced in MN by ASM (MN-ASM) or activated in HT by pathogen infection (HT-Hv). The isolated genes were involved in different processes related to resistance against pathogens, such as: production of active oxygen species, hypersensitive response, programmed cell death, synthesis and transport of antimicrobial metabolites, signal perception and transduction, synthesis of pathogenesis-related proteins, lipid metabolism and selective degradation of proteins. It was identified in HT-Hv a higher number of defense-related genes (22 %) than in MN-ASM (16 %). The incompatible interaction HT-Hv showed a higher number of genes implicated in the signal perception and transduction (44 %) than MN-ASM (30 %). However, the number of genes encoding antimicrobial proteins was higher in the susceptible cultivar MN with induced resistance (22 %) than in the resistant coffee plant HT inoculated with the incompatible pathogen (6 %). Genes encoding b-1,3-glucanases were isolated from HT-Hv and MN-ASM and their complete sequences could be obtained by RACE procedure. Results suggest that distinct recognition events and defense pathways are involved in the expression of resistance in HT-Hv and MN-ASM.