Thesis (MScFoodSc )--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The development of science-based management tools and appropriate postharvest handling protocols are required for the determination of optimal storage performance of pomegranate fruit. The South African pomegranate industry experiences considerable fruit quality losses due to the lack of knowledge on optimal storage and handling practices. The cultivar ‘Wonderful’ is the widely grown in South Africa; however, to date there is currently limited scientific knowledge on the storage requirements. To develop quality standards for the export market, knowledge of optimum storage conditions are required to provide an understanding of postharvest quality attributes and consumer organoleptic perceptions. The overall aim of this research was to provide science-based management tools for the storage performance of pomegranate fruit (cv. Wonderful). The research reported in Chapter 3 focused on the physiological responses of pomegranate fruit at different storage temperatures. Commercially harvested fruit were stored at 5±0.7°C, 7.5±0.3°C and 10±0.5°C with 92±2% RH and at room temperature (21±3°C, 65±6% RH) for 5 months. Fruit respiration and physiological disorders during long term storage were investigated. During storage, low temperatures evidently resulted in lower respiration rates; however, respiration rate increased gradually after 2 months resulting in higher respiration rates at 5°C than 7.5°C after 3 month storage period. Overall, fruit became more susceptible to internal and external disorders as storage period progressed. Storage of fruit longer than 2 months at 5°C resulted in chilling injury and this was observed over the 5 month storage period. Fruit stored at 21°C and 10°C were discarded after 1 and 4 months, respectively, due to complete fruit loss to decay and peel shrinkage. Furthermore, the severity of browning increased with storage temperatures, although this became more severe at 5°C after 3 months. Therefore, to maintain a relatively low respiration rate and minimize physiological disorders, the cv. Wonderful should be stored at 5°C and >92% RH for storage period up to 3 months. In Chapter 4, the effects of temperature and storage duration on pomegranate fruit quality and mechanical properties were conducted. This study revealed that weight loss increased with rise in temperature and storage duration with the primary source of moisture loss being the fruit skin (peel), which resulted in significant reduction in peel thickness with prolonged storage period. The CIE (L*, a*, b* and C*) colour parameters of fruit and arils decreased during storage. However, the hue (hº) for whole fruit increased as a result of browning incidence, and decreased in arils suggesting an increase in redness. Significant increases in total soluble solids (TSS), pH, TSS:TA and BrimA were observed with significant decreases in titratable acidity (TA) occurring throughout the storage period. Storage temperature and duration significantly affected majority of the investigated mechanical properties. Puncture resistance, fruit and aril compression strength decreased with storage temperature and duration. These findings showed that fruit may be stored between 2 to 3 months at 5°C to ensure the best internal and external quality attributes. The studies in Chapter 5 investigated the effects of storage temperature and duration on phytochemical and antioxidant properties. Fresh pomegranate juice was assessed for concentrations of total phenolic compounds, total anthocyanin and ascorbic acid. The antioxidant property of the fruit juice was tested against 2, 2-diphenyl–1–picryl hydrazyl (DPPH). The results showed that total phenolic and total anthocyanin concentration increased up to 3 months of storage at 5°C, 7.5°C, 10°C and 21°C and decreased gradually over time. For antioxidant activity, storage of fruit at 5°C, 7.5°C and 10°C significantly (p< 0.05) reduced the radical scavenging activity of juice by more than 56% when stored beyond 2 months. Furthermore, ascorbic acid concentration gradually declined with increasing storage duration, resulting in reduced juice antioxidant capacity. These findings are beneficial to pomegranate export industries, especially where fruit are stored for long for use in health-promoting purposes. The research conducted in Chapter 6 focused on determining suitable storage conditions based on the combination of instrumental measurements and sensory attributes. During storage, individual fruit were evaluated by trained sensory panel based on the overall appearance, taste and aril texture. Discriminant analysis at different storage temperatures was used to distinguish fruit from each other at 2 months of storage with sensory attributes such as overall pomegranate flavour (R2 = 0.56), total anthocyanin (R2 = 0.46) and Chroma (C*) colour index (R2 = 0.37). Discriminant analysis further showed that storage time rather than storage temperature led to the reduction in overall quality when storing fruit beyond 2 months. Based on sensory attributes, suitable storage temperature and duration were found to be 5°C and 2 months when overall flavor were highly rated; thereafter, significant reductions in overall appearance, aril and kernel texture were observed. Furthermore, the proposed storage conditions were supported with instrumental measurements, which revealed a decline in important fruit attributes such as total phenolics, total anthocyanin, aril colour and aril texture after 2 months of storage. Overall, this study provides science-based tools required for developing cold chain handling protocols needed to manage the long supply chain of ‘Wonderful’ pomegranate fruit grown in South Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die ontwikkeling van wetenskap-baseerde beheerinstrumente en toepaslike na-oes hanteringsmetodes is nodig vir die vasstelling van die optimale stoorprestasie van granate. Die Suid-Afrikaanse granaatindustrie ondervind groot vrug kwaliteit verliese as gevolg van die gebrek aan kennis oor optimale stoor en hantering praktyke. Die kultivar Wonderful is die wyd gegroei in Suid-Afrika, maar tot hede daar is tans beperk wetenskaplike kennis oor die stoor vereistes. Om gehaltestandaarde vir die uitvoermark te ontwikkel word kennis van die optimale stoortoestande benodig sodat ’n begrip van die na-oes gehalte-kenmerke en verbruiker se organoleptiese persepsies gevorm kan word. Die oorhoofse doelwit van die navorsing is om wetenskap-baseerde beheerinstrumente vir die stoor van granate (bv. Wonderful) te verskaf. Die navorsing wat in Hoofstuk 3 beskryf word is gerig op die fisiologiese respons van granate op verskillende bergingtemperatuur. Kommersieel-gekweekte vrugte is by 5±0.7°C, 7.5±0.3°C en 10±0.5°C met 92±2% RH en by kamertemperatuur by (21±3°C, 65±6% RH) vir 5 maande gestoor. Die respirasie van die vrugte en die fisiologiese ongesteldhede gedurende langtermyn stoor word ondersoek. Gedurende stoor het die laer temperature gelei tot laer respirasie koerse; maar respirasie koers het geleidelik na 2 maande verhoog wat lei tot hoër respirasie koerse by 5°C as teen 7.5°C na ’n 3-maande stoorperiode. Algehele, vrugte het egter meer vatbaar geword vir interne en eksterne ongesteldhede hoe langer die stoortydperk geduur het. Die stoor van vrugte langer as 2 maande teen 5°C lei tot skade as gevolg van verkoeling en dit is oor die 5 maande stoor tydperk waargeneem. Vrugte wat teen 21°C en 10°C gestoor is moes na onderskeidelik 1 tot 4 maande as gevolg van verlies wat die gevolg was van swam skade en skil krimping, weggegooi word. Die erns van die verbruining het verhoog toe die stoortemperature verhoog, alhoewel dit meer geraak het teen 5°C na 3 maande. Om dus ’n betreklik lae respirasie koers en min fisiologiese probleme te verseker, moet die kultivaar Wonderful teen 5°C en >92% RH vir 3 maande gestoor word. In Hoofstuk 4 word die effek van temperatuur en die duur van stoor op die gehalte van die granate en die meganiese eienskappe gemeet. Daar is bevind dat gewigsverlies met verhoogte toename in temperatuur en langer stoorperiodes toeneem en dat die hoofbron van verlies aan vog die skil van die vrug is. Die gevolg hiervan is ’n betekenisvolle reduksie in die dikte van die skil na ’n lang stoorperiode. Die CIE (L*, a*, b* and C*) kleur parameters van vrugte en granaatpitte het tydens stoor verminder. Die tint, (hº) van die hele vrug het as gevolg van verbruining, verhoog en het verminder in granaatpitte wat daarop dui vermeerdering in rooiheid. Daar was betekenisvolle verhogings in die totale oplosbare vaste stowwe (TSS), pH, TSS:TA en BrimA is opgemerk met betekenisvolle vermindering in asiditeit waarvan die waarde bepaal kan word (TA) en wat tydens die stoortydperk plaasvind. Stoortemperatuur en die duur van die stoor het ’n groot invloed gehad op die meganiese kenmerke wat ondersoek is. Weerstand teen priken die kompressie krag van die vrugte en die granaatpitte het met verhoogde temperatuur en duur van stoor afgeneem. Hierdie bevindinge het getoon dat vrugte kan gestoor word tussen 2 tot 3 maande by 5°C die beste interne en eksterne kwaliteit eienskappe om te verseker. In hoofstuk 5 is die effek van stoortemperatuur en duur op die fitochemiese en antioksidant kenmerke ondersoek. Vars granaatsap is ondersoek en ramings is gemaak t.o.v. totale konsentrasies van fenoliese samestellings, totale antosianiene en askorbinesuur. Die antioksidant kenmerke van die vrugtesap is getoets vir met 2, 2-diphenyl–1–picryl hydrazyl (DPPH). Daar is bevind dat die totale fenoliese en totale antosianiene konsentrasies tot by 3 maandemaande van stoor teen 5°C, 7.5°C, 10°C and 21°C toegeneem het en toe mettertyd afgeneem het. Wat betref antioksidant aktiwiteit, is daar gevind dat die stoor van vrugte teen 5°C, 7.5°C en 10°C die radikale reinigingsaktiviteite van die sap betekenisvol (p< 0.05) met meer as 56% verminder as dit vir meer as 2 maande gestoor word. Verder, askorbiensuur konsentrasie geleidelik afgeneem met toenemende stoor duur, wat lei tot verlaagde sap antioksidant kapasiteit. Hierdie bevindings is van belang vir die granaatuitvoerindustrie, veral waar vrugte vir 'n lang tydperk gestoor vir gebruik in gesondheids-bevordering doeleindes. Die navorsing wat in hoofstuk 6 beskryf is, het gefokus op die vasstelling van geskikte stoortoestande baseer op ’n kombinasie van instrumentale meting en sensoriese kenmerke. Gedurende stoor word individuele vrugte deur ’n opgeleide panel evalueer t.o.v. voorkoms, smaak en tekstuur van die granaatpitte. Diskriminantontleding teen verskillende stoor temperature is gebruik om vrugte na 2 maande stoor vrugte t.o.v sensoriese kenmerke soos algehele granaat smaak. (R2 = 0.56), totale antosianiene (R2 = 0.46) en Chroma (C*) kleur indeks (R2 = 0.37) te onderskei. Diskriminantontleding het verder getoon dat die duur van die stoor en nie die stoortemperatuur nie, gelei het tot die reduksie in algehele gehalte as die vrugte vir langer as 2 maande gestoor word. Gegrond op sensoriese eienskappe is geskik stoor temperatuur en duur gevind word by 5°C en 2 maande wanneer algehele geur was as hoog beoordeel; en daarna, is aansienlike vermindering in die algehele voorkoms, en die tekstuur van die granaatpitte afgeneem. Hierdie voorgestelde stoortoestande word ook ondersteun deur instrumentele meting, wat ’n afname in belangrike kenmerke soos totale fenologie, totale antosianiene en die kleur en tekstuur van die granaatpitte na ’n 2 maande stoorperiode toon. In die geheel verskaf die bevindinge van hierdie studie wetenskap-baseerde instrumente vir die ontwikkel van koue-ketting hantering protokol vir die bestuur van die lang verskaffingsketting van Wonderful granate wat in Suid-Afrika gekweek word.

Thesis (MScFoodSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of storage temperature and duration on the proximate composition, physico-chemical properties and selected bioactive components (vitamin C, anthocyanins and β-carotene) of arils from three pomegranate cultivars (‘Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ and ‘Ruby’). Pomegranates were hand-peeled and stored at three different temperatures (1°, 4° and 8°C) at 95% relative humidity (RH) for 14 days, with an additional day at ambient conditions (~21°C). Physico-chemical attributes, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid and proximate composition was measured on day 0, 7, 14 and 15. O2 consumption and CO2 production increased at elevated temperatures. No visual mould growth was detected in ‘Arakta’ and ‘Bahgwa’ arils after 14 days at 1°C 95% RH and after 7 days at 4°C 95% RH. Higher storage temperature negatively affected the proximate composition, physico-chemical attributes and bioactive components. The physico-chemical properties and selected bioactive components (anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, β-carotene) of pomegranate arils (‘Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ and ‘Ruby’) packed in three punnets made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET1 - clampshell; PET2 - tub and lid) or polypropylene (PP - tub and lid) material were studied for a period of 14 days at 5°C 95% RH. Packaging did not have a major effect on the physico-chemical and bioactive components of pomegranate arils, although PET2 had relatively stable headspace gas composition within the punnets. Storage duration caused a rise in pH and a decline in titratable acidity irrespective of packaging type. No visual mould growth was detected in ‘Arakta’ arils after 7 days irrespective of the type of packaging, while mould growth was detected in all ‘Ruby’ in all types of packaging. The earlier onset of visual microbial growth lead to a baseline microbiological study evaluating the effect of pre-storage water dipping of whole fruit on the microbiological quality of pomegranate arils stored for 8 days at 5°C 95% RH. Freshly harvested pomegranate fruit (‘Bahgwa’) were dipped in distilled water and air-dried (dipped fruit) or stored without postharvest dipping (dry fruit) at 7°C 95% RH for 15 weeks. Arils were extracted, packaged and stored at 5°C 95±8.34% RH for 8 days. Total viable aerobic mesophillic bacteria, yeasts and moulds, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were enumerated. After 8 days at 5°C 95% RH no microbial growth was detected on arils from ‘dry fruit’, while ‘dipped fruit’ showed increased yeast and mould counts (4.74 log cfu.g-1) and total viable aerobic mesophillic bacteria count (3.73 log cfu.g-1). In conclusion storage temperature affects the nutritional quality of pomegranate arils and is best maintained at 1°C for 14 days or 4°C for 7 days at 95% RH. Current South African packaging used to market pomegranate arils don’t have a major effect on the nutritional quality of pomegranate arils, although the headspace gas composition was most stable in PET2 packaging. Pre-storage water dipping of whole pomegranates should be avoided as this could reduce the shelf life of extracted pomegranate arils. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die gevolge van bergingstemperatuur en -tydperk op die proksimale samestelling, fisies-chemiese eienskappe en geselekteerde bio-aktiewe komponente (vitamien C, antosianiene en β-karoteen) van granaatpitte van drie kultivars ('Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ en ‘Ruby’) te ondersoek. Granaatpitte is geberg by drie temperature (1°, 4° en 8°C) 95% RH vir 14 dae plus ‘n addisionele dag by kamertemperatuur (~21°C). Fisies-chemiese eienskappe, antosianiene, askorbiensuur en proksimale samestelling is gemeet op dag 0, 7, 14 en 15. Die granaatpitte se O2-verbruik en CO2-produksie het toegeneem by hoër bergingstemperature. Geen swamgroei was sigbaar na 7 dae by 1°C 95% RH sowel as 14 dae 4°C 95% RH. Hoër bergingstemperatuur het die proksimale samestelling, fisies-chemiese eienskappe en bio-aktiewe komponente negatief beïnvloed. Die fisies-chemiese eienskappe en geselekteerde bio-aktiewe komponente (antosianiene, askorbiensuur, β-karoteen) van granaatpitte ('Arakta’, ‘Bahgwa’ en ‘Ruby’) is verpak in drie bakkies vervaardig van polyethyleentereftalaat (PET1 – klamp-bakkie, PET2 – bakkie en deksel) of polipropileen (PP – bakkie en deksel) en bestudeer vir 14 dae by 5°C 95% RH. Heel granate was onderworpe aan 10-14 weke bergingstydperk by 7°C 95% RH voor die granate geskil en verpak is. Die bakkie tipe het nie 'n duidelike uitwerking op die fisies-chemiese en bio-aktiewe komponente van die granaatpitte gehad nie, alhoewel die gas samestelling in die kopspasie van PET2 bakkies relatief onveranderd gebly het. Gedurende die bergingstydperk het die pH gestyg en die titreerbare suur gedaal ongeag die bakkie tipe. Geen visuele swamgroei was sigbaar in ‘Arakta’ granaatpitte na 7 dae by 5°C 95% RH terwyl ‘Ruby’ granaatpitte wel swamgroei getoon het ongeag die bakkie tipe. Die vroeë aanvang van sigbare swamgroei het tot ‘n verdere mikrobiologiese basislynstudie gelei. Die uitwerking van voorbergingswaterdompeling van heel granate is geëvalueer op die mikrobiologiese gehalte van die granaatpitte wat gestoor was vir 8 dae by 5°C 95% RH. Vars ge-oesde ‘Bahgwa' granate is in water gedompel en gelugdroog (gedompelde granate) of glad nie in water gedompel nie (droë granate) en geberg by 7°C 95% RH vir 15 weke. Granate is ontpit, verpak en geberg by 5°C 95±8.34% RH vir 8 dae. Totale lewensvatbare aërobiese mesofilliese bakterieë, giste en swamme, Escherichia coli en Staphylococcus aureus telling is vervat. Granaatpitte van ‘droë granate’ was vry van enige mikrobiese groei na 8 dae. Die ‘gedompelde granate’ het ‘n toename in giste en swamme (4,74 log cfu.g-1) en totale lewensvatbare aërobiese mesofilliese bakterieë (3,73 log cfu.g-1) getoon. Hierdie studie maan dus teen waterdompeling van heel granate voor ‘n bergingsperiode van 10-15 weke. Ten slotte word die voedingswaarde van granaatpitte wel beïnvloed deur ‘n hoër bergingstemperatuur en sal die granaatpitte se gehalte behou word by 1°C vir 14 dae of 4°C vir 7 dae by 95% RH. Die voedingswaarde van granaatpitte word nie beïnvloed deur kommersiële verpakking wat tans in Suid-Afrika gebruik word om granaatpitte te adverteer nie, alhoewel PET2 bakkies se gas samestelling in die kopspasie onveranderd gebly het. Waterdompeling van heel granate voor ‘n verlengde bergingstydperk moet eerder vermy word aangesien dit die raklewe van granaatpitte verminder.

Thesis (PhD(Agric))--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The development and application of science-based tools for determining optimum fruit maturity and postharvest handling protocols to maintain quality and reduce losses during postharvest handling and marketing is essential to maintain the competitiveness of the emerging pomegranate industry in South Africa. Currently, there are no quality standards for the South African pomegranate industry, neither is there a general consensus on the optimal harvest maturity indices for fruit cultivars. These information are important to ensure the delivery of good quality fruit to consumers, particularly for long supply chains. The overall aims of this study were (a) to develop science-based management tools for determining optimum maturity indices and storage performance of pomegranate fruit cultivars grown in South Africa, and (b) to characterise the physico-chemical and pharmacological properties of selected cultivars relevant to postharvest handling and industrial applications. In Section II, seasonal studies on pomegranate (‘Baghwa’ and ‘Ruby’) fruit growth and the evolution of maturity indices during development were conducted. Significant increases in total soluble solids (TSS), sugars (glucose and fructose) and anthocyanin composition, coupled with significant decline in titratable acidity (TA), organic acids and total phenolics (TP) occurred with advancing fruit maturity. Fruit at advanced maturity stages were characterized by intense pigmentation of peel and aril, which coincided with maximum accumulation of anthocyanins. Among all the major maturity indices investigated, TSS, BrimA and anthocyanins did not show significant (p<0.05) seasonal variability, and strong correlations were found among the indices. In combination, these indices accounted for fruit juice sugar content, acidity and colour and could serve as reliable markers to determine optimal maturity for both pomegranate cultivars. The studies in Section III focused on characterization of postharvest quality including nutritional, medicinal and antioxidant properties of fruit parts. Quality attributes of eight commercial cultivars were analysed by cluster analysis, which enabled the cultivars to be separated into two clusters (cluster 1 = ‘Ruby’, ‘Arakta’ and ‘Ganesh’; cluster 2 = ‘Bhagwa’, ‘Acco’ and ‘Herskawitz’) and two ungrouped cultivars (‘Molla de Elche’ and ‘Wonderful’) based on important quality attributes (size, texture, colour, soluble solids, acidity, juiciness and phenolics). Furthermore, pomegranate fruit peel extracts were studied to highlight their potential for value-adding in pharmaceutical and other industrial applications. The results showed that fruit peels of the investigated cultivars possess strong antibacterial, antioxidant and antityrosinase activities, and hence could be exploited as potential sources of natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, as well as a potential tyrosinase inhibitor. The research reported in Section IV investigated the effects of harvest maturity and storage conditions on postharvest quality and nutritional value of ‘Bhagwa’ and ‘Ruby’ cultivars. Fruit harvested at commercial maturity were stored at 5±0.3°C, 7±0.5°C and 10±0.4°C with 92±3% RH and at room temperature (20±2.2°C, 65±5.5% RH) for 16 weeks. Fruit physiological responses and quality were affected by storage condition, with the maximum levels of respiration occurring at higher temperature and extended storage duration. Fruit colour and antioxidant capacity varied slightly among storage temperatures, with total soluble solids and titratable acidity decreasing gradually over time at different temperatures. Considering that fruit stored at 5°C and 92% RH had significantly reduced weight loss, low incidence of physiological disorders and best results in maintaining flavour attributes (TSS and TA, TSS:TA ratio), the investigated cultivars may be stored at 5°C and >92% RH for 8 - 12 weeks. In paper 9 (Section IV), the research investigated the relationships between instrumental and sensory measurements of pomegranate fruit at different harvest maturities during storage and shelf life. Mature ‘Bhagwa’ fruit harvested at different times could not be discriminated by sensory attributes assessed by a trained panel. However, TSS (R2 = 0.677) and juice content (R2 = 0.512) were the two most decisive quality attributes at shelf life related to harvest maturity status. For ‘Ruby’, however, a combination of instrumental and sensory attributes appeared to be influential in discriminating mature fruit harvested at different times, with TSS:TA ratio being the most decisive (R2 = 0.654) in distinguishing different fruit harvests, followed by sweet taste (R2 = 0.474) and hue angle (R2 = 0.431). The results showed that to ensure the best post-storage quality of ‘Bhagwa’, the optimum harvest maturity was between 167 - 175 DAFB (H2 and H3) when fruit reached maximum TSS level (>16°Brix; H3) and juice content (>65 mL/100 g aril; H2). However, for ‘Ruby’, this study indicated that the optimum harvest date was at 143 DAFB (H2) when TSS:TA ratio was >55, which coincided with significantly higher sensory rating for sweet taste after shelf life of fruit at H2 than H1 and H3, respectively. The results from this thesis provide new understanding and better insights on fruit characteristics of major pomegranate cultivars grown in South Africa. Overall, the study provides new knowledge on science-based tools for assessing fruit readiness for harvest as well as storage conditions to maintain fruit postharvest quality and reduce losses. It also provides scientific information on phytochemical contents and antioxidant compounds in fruit to promote value-adding of pomegranate as a good raw material with potential applications in health food products and other industrial applications such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING; Die ontwikkeling en toepassing van wetenskapgegronde instrumente vir die bepaling van optimale vrugrypheid en naoes-hanteringsprotokolle om gedurende die naoes-hantering en -bemarking van vrugte gehalte te behou en verliese te verminder, is noodsaaklik om die mededingendheid van die ontluikende granaatbedryf in Suid-Afrika te verseker. Tans is daar nie enige gehaltestandaarde vir die Suid-Afrikaanse granaatbedryf óf algemene eenstemmigheid oor die optimale oesrypheidsaanwysers vir vrugtekultivars nie. Hierdie inligting is belangrik om die naoes-lewering van uithalervrugte aan verbruikers te verseker, veral vir lang verskaffingskettings. Die oorkoepelende doelwitte van hierdie studie was (a) om wetenskapgegronde bestuursinstrumente te ontwikkel vir die vasstelling van optimale rypheidsaanwysers en bergingsprestasie van granaatkultivars wat in Suid-Afrika verbou word, en (b) om die fisiko-chemiese eienskappe en farmakologiese kenmerke van gekose kultivars te tipeer. In deel II is seisoenale studies oor granaatgroei en die ontwikkeling van rypheidsaanwysers gedurende groei onderneem. Namate vrugte ryp geword het, is beduidende toenames in totale oplosbare vaste stowwe (TSS), suikers (glukose en fruktose) en antosianien-samestelling opgemerk, sowel as ’n beduidende afname in titreerbare suur (TA), organiese suur en totale fenol (TP). Vrugte in gevorderde stadia van rypheid is gekenmerk deur intense pigmentasie van die skil en aril, wat met maksimum opbou van antosianien verband gehou het. Van ál die belangrike rypheidsaanwysers wat ondersoek is, het TSS, BrimA en antosianien onbeduidende (p<0.05) seisoenale veranderlikheid getoon, en is sterk verbande tussen die aanwysers opgemerk. Gesamentlik sou die aanwysers kon rekenskap gee van sapsuikerinhoud, -suurgehalte én -kleur, en sou dit dus as betroubare rypheidsmerkers kon dien om optimale rypheid vir albei granaatkultivars te bepaal. Die studies in deel III het gekonsentreer op die tipering van die naoes-kenmerke, onder meer die voedings-, medisinale en antioksidant-kenmerke van vrugtedele. Kenmerke van agt kommersiële kultivars is deur middel van groepsontleding bestudeer, waarvolgens die kultivars op grond van belangrike kenmerke (grootte, tekstuur, kleur, oplosbare vaste stowwe, suurgehalte, sappigheid en fenol) in twee groepe (groep 1 = ‘Ruby’, ‘Arakta’ en ‘Ganesh’; groep 2 = ‘Bhagwa’, ‘Acco’ en ‘Herskawitz’) en twee niegegroepeerde kultivars (‘Molla de Elche’ en ‘Wonderful’) ingedeel is. Ten einde die toegevoegde waarde van granaatskille vir farmaseutiese en kosmetiese doeleindes te bevorder, is skilekstrakte ook bestudeer. Die resultate toon dat die vrugteskille van die bestudeerde kultivars oor sterk antibakteriese, antioksidant- en antitirosinase- eienskappe beskik. Daarom kan die skil van die granaatkultivars as moontlike bron van natuurlike antimikrobiese en antioksidant-agense sowel as ’n moontlike tirosinase-inhibitor ontgin word. Die navorsing in deel IV het ondersoek ingestel na die uitwerking van oesrypheid en bergingsomstandighede op die naoes-gehalte en -voedingswaarde van die kultivars ‘Bhagwa’ en ‘Ruby’. Vrugte wat op kommersiële rypheid geoes is, is vir 16 weke by 5±0.3 °C, 7±0.5 °C en 10±0.4 °C met 92±3% RH, sowel as by kamertemperatuur (20±2.2 °C, 65±5.5% RH) geberg. Die bergingsomstandighede het die fisiologiese reaksies en gehalte van die vrugte beïnvloed: Maksimum vlakke van respirasie het teen hoër temperature en met verlengde berging voorgekom. Die kleur en antioksidantvermoë van die vrugte het effens tussen bergingstemperature verskil, en totale oplosbare vaste stowwe en titreerbare suur het mettertyd geleidelik by verskillende temperature afgeneem. Gedagtig daaraan dat die vrugte wat teen 5 °C en 92% RH geberg is beduidend minder gewigsverlies, ’n lae voorkoms van fisiologiese afwykings en die beste resultate in blywende geurkenmerke (TSS en TA, TSS:TA-verhouding) getoon het, kan die bestudeerde kultivars vir 8 tot 12 weke teen 5 °C en >92% RH geberg word (navorsingstuk 8). In navorsingstuk 9 (deel IV) is daar ondersoek ingestel na die verhouding tussen instrument- en sintuiglike metings van granate in verskillende stadia van oesrypheid gedurende berging en raklewe. Geen verskil in sintuiglike kenmerke kon bespeur word by ryp ‘Bhagwa’- vrugte wat op verskillende tye geoes is nie. Tog was TSS (R2 = 0.677) en sapinhoud (R2 = 0.512) die twee bepalendste gehaltekenmerke wat betref oesrypheidstatus gedurende raklewe. By ‘Ruby’ kon ’n kombinasie van instrument- en sintuiglike kenmerke egter wél tussen stadia van oesrypheid onderskei, met die TSS:TA-verhouding die bepalendste (R2 = 0.654) in die onderskeid tussen verskillende vrugteoeste, gevolg deur ’n soet smaak (R2 = 0.474) en skakeringshoek (R2 = 0.431). Die resultate toon dat die beste nabergingsgehalte vir ‘Bhagwa’ verkry word by ’n optimale oesrypheid van 167–175 DAFB (H2 en H3), wanneer vrugte die maksimum TSS-vlak (>16°Brix; H3) en sapinhoud (>65 mL/100 g aril; H2) bereik het. Vir ‘Ruby’ dui hierdie studie op ’n optimale oesdatum van 143 DAFB (H2) met ’n TSS:TA-verhouding van >55, wat verband gehou het met ’n beduidend hoër telling vir soet smaak by H2 eerder as by H1 en H3 ná raklewe. Die resultate van hierdie tesis bied ’n beter begrip van, en insig in, die vrugtekenmerke van granaatkultivars wat in Suid-Afrika verbou word. Oor die algemeen bied die studie wetenskaplike inligting om moontlik die toegevoegde waarde van granate as ’n goeie bron van minerale elemente sowel as farmaseutiese, kosmetiese en antioksidant-verbindings te bevorder. Dit bied ook kennis oor die ontwikkeling van wetenskapgegronde instrumente vir die vasstelling van optimale vrugrypheid en naoes-hanteringsprotokolle om gedurende die naoes-hantering en -bemarking van granate vruggehalte te behou en verliese te verminder.

Submitted by Laís Naiara Honorato Monteiro null (laismonteiiro@gmail.com) on 2017-02-07T14:21:05Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DISSERTAÇÃO LAÍS_MONTEIRO.pdf: 3540607 bytes, checksum: 1be42b239d144381cc897bf83d7a57b8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by LUIZA DE MENEZES ROMANETTO (luizamenezes@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2017-02-13T15:58:04Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 monteiro_lnh_me_ilha.pdf: 3540607 bytes, checksum: 1be42b239d144381cc897bf83d7a57b8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-13T15:58:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 monteiro_lnh_me_ilha.pdf: 3540607 bytes, checksum: 1be42b239d144381cc897bf83d7a57b8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-01-12 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A romãzeira (Punica granatum L.), espécie exótica no Brasil, possui grande potencial para exploração comercial por apresentar inúmeras atividades medicinais e nutracêuticas. Porém, sua produção de mudas via sementes não se encontra totalmente elucidada na literatura. Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito do armazenamento e de tratamentos pré-germinativos na emergência e crescimento inicial de plântulas de romãzeira. O experimento foi realizado no Laboratório do Departamento de Fitotecnia, Tecnologia de Alimentos e Sócio-Economia, da UNESP - Câmpus de Ilha Solteira, de agosto a dezembro de 2015. Foram coletados frutos de romã cv. Comum fisiologicamente maduros de pomar comercial localizado no município de Presidente Prudente - SP. Avaliaram-se até estabilização da emergência: início, porcentagem, índice de velocidade e tempo médio de emergência. Aos 50 dias após a semeadura avaliaram-se: número de folhas; diâmetro do caule; comprimento do sistema radicular e da parte aérea e massa de matéria fresca e seca total. Para o experimento de armazenamento (0, 30, 60, 90 e 120 dias em embalagens de sacos de polietileno transparentes, sacos de papel brancos, e frascos de vidro), em um lote das sementes não foi retirado a sarcotesta. Para os experimentos de escarificação e imersão em água (0, 12, 24 e 48 horas) e em GA3 (0, 500, 1000 e 1500 mg L-1), a escarificação em um lote das sementes foi feita com lixa de nº 100. A sarcotesta das sementes de todos experimentos foi retirada utilizando a pressão dessas contra uma peneira com abertura de 2,36 mm em água corrente. Verificou-se que o armazenamento de sementes de romã com sarcotesta é viável em embalagens de polietileno transparentes por até 90 dias, favorecendo variáveis de emergência. Sementes de romã com sarcotesta devem ser semeadas logo após retiradas do fruto para favorecer o crescimento inicial das plântulas. Nos experimentos de escarificação, a associação deste método com imersão em água por 12 horas ou em 500 mg L-1 GA3 reduziu o início e o tempo médio de emergência das sementes de romã. Para emergência e crescimento inicial de plântulas de romã não se faz necessário o uso da escarificação mecânica, da água e do ácido giberélico na imersão das sementes. / The pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), an exotic species in Brazil, has great potential for commercial exploration because it presents innumerable medicinal and nutraceutical activities. However, its production of seedlings via seeds is not fully elucidated in the literature. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of storage and pre-germination treatments on emergence and initial growth of pomegranate seedlings. The experiment was conducted in the Plant Science Laboratory of the Department of Plant Science, Food and Socio-Economics of Technology, UNESP – Faculty of Engineering – Ilha Solteira, from August to October 2015. Physiologically mature fruits were collected from adult plants of pomegranate cv. Comum in a commercial orchard located in the Presidente Prudente city. Start, percentage, speed index and emergence mean time were evaluated until emergence stabilization. Fifty days after sowing were evaluated: leaves number; stem diameter, root length, shoot length and total fresh and dry matter. For the storage experiment (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 days in transparent polyethylene bags, white paper bags, and glass bottles), in lot of seeds the sarcotesta was not sarcotesta. For scarification and water immersion experiments (0, 12, 24 and 48 hours) and in GA3 (0, 500, 1000 and 1500 mg L-1), scarification in a lot of seeds was done with sandpaper nº 100. It was pressed against sieve (2,36 mm aperture) under running water for removal of sarcotesta of all experiments. The storage of pomegranate seeds with sarcotesta is viable in transparent polyethylene packages for up to 90 days, favoring emergency variables. Pomegranate seeds with sarcotesta should be sown after being removed from the fruit to favor the initial growth of the seedlings. In the scarification experiments, the association of this method with immersion in water for 12 hours or in 500 mg L-1 GA3 reduced the start and mean time of emergence pomegranate seeds. For emergence and initial growth of pomegranate seedlings, it is not necessary to use mechanical scarification, water and GA3 in the immersion of seeds.

This study was conducted to investigate the physico-chemical properties and antioxidant activity of five pomegranates fruit (Punica granatum L.) cultivars grown in Iran. Significant differences were found among the pomegranate cultivars for many of the properties studied. Results showed that, in particular, fruit diameter ranged from 63.63 mm (Syah) to 79.29 mm (Rabab), fruit volume from 153.3 cm3 (Syah) to 293.3 cm3 (Rabab), fruit density from 0.93 g cm-3 (Rabab) to 1.13 g cm-3 (Torsh Sefeed). Although Syah showed the lowest fruit weight (144.8 g), fruit yield (8.28 ton ha–1) and fruit skin thickness (1.55 mm), Rabab had the highest fruit yield (27.1 ton ha–1) and fruit skin thickness (2.32 mm). Juice volume was between 61.1 and 67.0 cm3. Percent of aril ranged from 59.64% (Rabab) to 75.3% (Syah) and weight of aril was between 108.9 and 199.8 g. Also, results indicated that titratable acidity content varied from 0.39% (Syah) to 1.13% (Torsh Sefeed). The total soluble solids content varied from 12.67 ◦Brix (Torsh Sefeed) to 15.67 ◦Brix (Zardeh Anar), pH values from 3.05 to 3.77, Electrical conductivity values from 2.8 to 3.14 dSm-1 and vitamin C content from 59.25 to 69.52 mg 100g1. The anthocyanins content was observed between 80.36 (Syah) and 216.97 (Zardeh Anar). The antioxidant activity of pomegranate cultivars ranged from 27.24% (Syah) to 84.04% (Torsh Sefeed). These results demonstrated that the cultivar was the major factor which influences the morpho-pomological and chemical (especially, antioxidant activity), properties in pomegranates.

For several centuries, Punica granatum L. has been utilized in traditional medicine to treat various ailments including diabetes, diarrhea, and parasitic and microbial infections. Current scientific research suggests that the unique phytochemical composition of the botanical is largely responsible for the range of biological activities demonstrated by the different components of P. granatum L. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the fruit extract of P. granatum L. on the following parameters of skin health: facial wrinkle severity, sebum production, transepidermal water loss, melanin index, and erythema index. The hypothesis was that oral pomegranate supplementation improves the facial appearance of wrinkles and the biophysical properties of the skin because of the well-studied antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the phytochemicals in the fruit extract. A prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted in which subjects were supplemented daily with a punicalagin-enriched oral pomegranate extract for four weeks. The study was performed at Integrative Skin Science and Research (Sacramento, California, USA) and included 18 healthy males and females, aged 25–55 years, who were asked to restrict the intake of other polyphenolic-rich foods. A facial image collection and analysis system was used to assess the facial appearance of wrinkle severity, and standardized, noninvasive tools were used to collect information on facial sebum production, transepidermal water loss, melanin index, and erythema index. In addition, self-reports of quality of life and digestive health were collected from the subjects. These parameters were assessed at pretreatment baseline and after four weeks of oral supplementation. The results showed statistically significant reductions in the melanin index of the cheeks (p < 0.01), transepidermal water loss from the stratum corneum of the cheeks (p < 0.01), and facial appearance of average wrinkle severity (p < 0.01). Furthermore, a significant reduction was found in facial transepidermal water loss among females of the intervention group (p < 0.01). No adverse effects were reported over the four weeks of the study. In conclusion, this study demonstrated an improvement in several biophysical properties of the skin with oral pomegranate extract supplementation. As a result, oral pomegranate extract could be used as an effective agent for the maintenance of skin appearance and skin health.

Fruit tree leaf nutrient concentrations are commonly used to determine fertilizer rates, but information is limited regarding nutrient requirements, seasonal N uptake and removal rates, and soil N dynamics for pomegranate. Relationships between fertilizer rates, leaf nutrient concentrations, fruit yield and quality were examined in five mature, commercial California ‘Wonderful’ pomegranate orchards. Site 1 was observed for two growing seasons (2018-2019) and sites 2-5 were observed for one season (2018 or 2019). In 2018, 150, 300, or 450 g N/tree was applied at sites 1-3 in a single application at early fruit development or in two equal applications at early and mid-season fruit development. In 2019, fertilizer rates were adjusted based on site-specific leaf nutrient analysis and crop load and applied at mid-season fruit development (158, 185, 225, 286, 392, or 625 g N/tree at site 1; 115, 130, 150, 175, 212, or 270 g N/tree at site 4; and 107, 122, 142, 171, 214, or 286 g N/tree at site 5). A randomized complete block design was used for all experiments. Leaves were collected from all data trees during early, mid-season and late fruit development and analyzed for leaf nutrient concentrations. At harvest, total fruit weight per tree and individual fruit weight and diameter were measured. Canopy volume was measured during the dormant season prior to pruning. Nitrogen partitioning, uptake and removal rates were studied by analyzing plant tissue, soil, and lysimeter water samples in 2019 at site 5. Fruit yield and average diameter varied significantly depending on site and fertilizer treatments. Average fruit yield per tree ranged from 5-90 kg fruit/tree (site 1: 78.5 kg fruit/tree in 2018 and 91.1 kg fruit/tree in 2019, site 2: 55.6 kg fruit/tree, site 3: 29.7 kg fruit/tree, site 4: 5.6 kg fruit/tree, site 5: 9.1 kg fruit/tree). Sufficiency ranges and significant relationships were determined between certain nutrients, including nitrogen and potassium, to fruit yield and diameter. Higher fertilizer treatments were associated with higher residual soil N compared to the low fertilizer treatments within the root zone (2.25-19.33 mg/L NO3-N) and below the root zone (2.25-9.17 mg/L NO3-N) suggesting a higher likeliness of nitrogen leaching with fertilizer applications exceeding the crop’s nitrogen demand. Overall, variability between sites in fertilizer treatment effects, leaf nitrogen concentrations, and yield suggests that setting site-specific yield goals based on estimated N uptake and removal is necessary to develop effective pomegranate fertilizer programs.

Master of Science / Food Science Institute / Kadri Koppel / Pomegranate fruits have grown in popularity due to their known beneficial health properties. The objectives of this study were to: 1) determine if flavor differences existed among and within fruits, 2) understand appropriate numbers of replications needed for products that are naturally variable, and 3) compare individual and consensus scores for descriptive sensory analysis over 10 replications of the same product to determine whether differences are found between the methods. Three different sections of the pomegranate fruit were individually evaluated (top, middle and bottom) to determine if flavor differences existed among the fruit sections. Furthermore, the number of repetitions needed in order to obtain small differences in a descriptive panel was calculated. Results showed that pomegranate fruits have natural variation of flavor in the different sections, as well as differences among fruits of the same cultivar. The number of repetitions increased as the differences that wanted to be detected became smaller, and they decreased, as these differences increased. After each sections of fruit were individually evaluated, the panel discussed results and set consensus scores for each attribute. Analysis on mean individual scores and consensus data, along with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that both, individual and consensus methods, provided the same reliable and reproducible information. However, this was evaluated using highly trained panelists. Besides pomegranate juice (PJ), green tea (GT) is one of the most consumed beverages in the world, and has the highest polyphenol content of all teas. Six PJ and GT blends were prepared at different ratios: 90-10, 80-20, 70-30, 60-40, 50-50, 40-60 vol/vol. Lipton GT and Wonderful pomegranates were used to prepare the samples. The objectives of this study were to: 1) determine sensory differences in the samples, 2) consumer acceptance before and after antioxidant information of the samples was provided, and 3) determine their total phenolic content (TPC). Results showed that samples with lower PJ were higher in attributes intensities for Green, and Tea like flavor, while attributes like Berry, Cranberry, Cherry and Sweetness were lower. Consumers liked samples higher in PJ, and sample 40-60 was the least liked. However, overall liking of all samples increased when antioxidant information was given. TPC results showed that pure PJ had the highest content, and as it was mixed with GT, TPC was the sum of the individual percentages of each component. Addition of claims in beverage labels might be a good strategy for consumers to purchase these type of products high in antioxidant content.

Master of Science / Department of Food Science / Kadri Koppel / Pomegranate fruits are seasonally produced and require processing to provide year round availability. Effects of processing on phenolic compounds, color, and other physical properties have been examined but few studies have examined the sensory effects. Juice prepared from fresh Wonderful pomegranates was used to prepare fresh frozen juice, batch pasteurized juice, and reconstituted juice from dried arils. These juices were evaluated using analytical and affective sensory methods to increase the understanding of processing effects on pomegranate juice properties. A modified consensus flavor profile showed that a large number of small differences existed. The accumulation of these changes demonstrates the distinction among processing methods. Time intensity multi-evaluation (TIME) profiling, a new method, was used to further understand how multiple attributes, including aromatics, feeling factors, and basic tastes, changed over the course of one sip. Fruity flavor was consistently the first to appear in the profile while bitterness and astringency lasted the longest. The attribute woody displayed longer peak times in the pasteurized and reconstituted samples than seen in fresh frozen juice. Semi-Continuous Consumption (SCC) profiling, another new method, explained product differences over 25 sips that mimicked consumption. Overall, astringent and bitter components increased while fruity and overall sweet attributes declined. These profile changes differed by sample with reconstituted juice showing the least increase in astringency over consumption. The juice samples were subjected to an acceptance test that showed four liking clusters, one that accepted all three juices and three clusters that disliked one of each juice type. The results from these studies are an initial step in describing how processing of pomegranate juice can effect flavor. Understanding the flavor differences is beneficial to processors for marketing products and for purchasers of these products for ingredient usage. Furthermore, the process of TIME and SCC profiling are described which are beneficial for understanding how multiple flavors change over single and multiple consumption events of a product respectively. These new methodologies are useful in explaining the experience of complex products such as teas and coffees or products exhibiting build-up such as nutrition aides.

No contexto atual de alimentos nutracêuticos, a romãzeira, frutífera exótica no Brasil, se destaca mundialmente pelo alto poder antioxidante e propriedades anti-inflamatórias, anticancerígenas e antidegenerativas, com pesquisas recentes e produtos disponibilizados no mercado farmacêutico e alimentício. Para aumentar a oferta do produto no mercado consumidor a implantação de cultivos comercias é a primeira etapa do processo. Porém, para o bom desenvolvimento da cultura o uso de mudas de qualidade e com características agronômicas adequadas são primordiais. Almejando essas propriedades, a propagação, é o caminho mais utilizado na fruticultura para a produção de mudas com alto vigor e produtividade. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os métodos de propagação por estaquia e alporquia para produção de mudas de romãzeira cv. Comum. Avaliou-se o uso de AIB (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg L-1) na formação de raízes adventícias em estacas herbáceas, semi-lenhosas e lenhosas de romãzeira, nos períodos de inverno e primavera em ambiente com nebulização. Avaliou-se também, o uso de AIB nas concentrações de (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg L-1), no enraizamento de alporques em ramos com 10 e 15 mm de diâmetros, nos períodos de inverno e primavera. Pode-se concluir que, em romãzeira cv. Comum, o método de estaquia é mais eficiente com a utilização de estacas caulinares semi-lenhosas e lenhosas no período de inverno, não necessitando nesta época da aplicação de AIB para estimular a formação de raízes. O método de alporquia proporciona elevadas porcentagens de enraizamento tanto na primavera quanto no inverno. Alporques em ramos com diâmetro de 15,0 mm apresentam maior matéria seca de raízes quando comparados aos ramos de 10,0 mm de diâmetro. O uso de AIB em alporques influencia no comprimento e no número de raízes formadas. Os alporques realizados no inverno apresentam maior matéria seca de raízes. Os materiais usados para a contenção do substrato nos alporques, polietileno e papel alumínio, não interferem no enraizamento da romãzeira. / In the current context of nutraceutical foods, the exotic, fruitful pomegranate in Brazil stands out worldwide for its high antioxidant power and anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antidegenerative properties, with recent research and products available in the pharmaceutical and food market. To increase the supply of the product in the consumer market the implantation of commercial crops is the first stage of the process. However, for the good development of the crop the use of quality seedlings and with suitable agronomic characteristics are primordial. Targeting these properties, propagation, is the most used path in fruit growing for the production of seedlings with high vigor and productivity. The objective of this work was to evaluate the methods of propagation by cuttings and air-layerings for the production of pomegranate seedlings cv. Common. It was evaluated the use of AIB (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg L-1) in the formation of adventitious roots in herbaceous, semi-woody and woody piles of pomegranate, during winter and spring periods in the nebulized environment. It was also evaluated the use of AIB in the concentrations of (0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg L-1), in the rooting of air-layering in branches with 10 and 15 mm of diameter, in the winter and spring periods. It can be concluded that in pomegranate cv. Common, the cutting method is more efficient with the use of semi-woody and woody stem cuttings in the winter period and does not require the application of IBA to stimulate root formation at this time. The weeding method provides high rooting percentages in both spring and winter. Air-layerings in branches with a diameter of 15 mm show a higher dry matter of roots when compared to the branches of 10 mm in diameter. The use of AIB in air-layering influences the length and number of roots formed. The air-layering made in the winter present greater dry matter of roots. The materials used for the containment of the substrate in the air-layering, polyethylene and aluminum foil, do not interfere in the rooting of the pomegranate.