Women suffer a high prevalence rate of several mental disorders. National U.S. data (N = 9,282) shows that 23.4% of women meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder, 8.6% for depression, and 11.6% for a mood disorder (Kessler et al., 2005). Compared to men, women are two times more likely to be depressed (Lewinsohn, Rhode, Seeley, & Baldwin, 2001) and two to three times more likely to suffer from anxiety disorders such as panic disorders, phobias, obsessive compulsive disorders, and Posttraumatic Stress (Kessler et al., 2005). Due to experiencing a high number of mental disorders, women’s psychological well-being (PWB) has been questioned (OWH, 2009). Considerable research describes the negative influence psychological distress has on women’s lives, but little is understood of what constitutes PWB. Ryff (1989) proposed that existing models of mental health too often focus on illness and disorders, neglecting important aspects of positive functioning. This study was based on Ryff’s (1989) conceptualization that improved PWB would reflect the perception of functioning well in life (Ryff, 1989). The purpose of the present study was to identify factors important in women’s PWB. Factors included: age, household income, education, marital status, race/ethnicity, perceived social support, psychological distress, and PWB. The design of the study was a secondary data analysis based on an existing study, “The Psychological Well-Being of Women Pre- and Post- a Breast Cancer Diagnosis.” Women recalled for a diagnostic mammogram, but not diagnosed, were included in the study (N = 2,746). Measures used included: a demographic questionnaire, Scales of psychological well-being (Ryff, 1989); Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995); and a Visual Analog Scale of Perceived Social Support. Findings showed that income, education, and perceived social support showed statistically significant different PWB scores in the positive direction. Married women scored higher PWB scores than women of other types of marital status, but neither age nor race/ethnicity showed differences in outcome scores. Psychological distress and PWB were strongly and inversely correlated, suggesting that the constructs are more directly related than previously identified. Implications for therapeutic practice and future research are discussed.

Chinese adolescents’ development has received increasing attention over recent decades. However, following a traditional deficit model, most of the attention has been on problematic functioning of adolescents (e.g. depression). This emphasis is not consistent with evidence that the large majority of Chinese adolescents do not manifest such problem behaviors. Little is known about positive functioning among Chinese adolescents and how it is related to key socialization practices such as parenting. The purpose of the present study was to begin to fill these gaps. Using theory, past empirical practice, and characteristics of Chinese culture, the study posited a second-order structure for positive functioning in three components: intrapersonal functioning (self-esteem and empathy), interpersonal functioning (social initiative and peer connection), and institutional functioning (academic achievement). Parenting was measured by three commonly investigated dimensions: parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control. A specialized multivariate model of associations between parenting and adolescents’ positive functioning was hypothesized and analyzed using data from the Cross-National Adolescence Project (C-NAP; Barber, Stolz, & Olsen, 2005). The Chinese sub-sample consisted of 1,027 adolescents (453 boys) from 12 to 20 years old in Beijing, China. The three hypothesized paths were: parental support would be positively related to interpersonal functioning, parental psychological control would be negatively associated with intrapersonal functioning, and parental behavioral control would be positively linked with academic achievement. The results indicated that the second-order model for adolescents’ positive functioning fit the data well. In terms of the associations between parenting and positive functioning, all three hypothesized paths were supported. In post-hoc analyses, it became apparent that a parental support model fit the data even better than the specialized model. Thus, the best model fit was achieved when all paths from parental support to positive functioning were estimated, revealing that parental support explained unique variance in all three domains of positive functioning. In contrast, parental behavioral control and psychological control did not explain unique variance in any outcome measure beyond that explained by parental support. The predominating role of parental support in Chinese adolescents’ positive functioning was discussed, along with limitations of the study, and suggestions for future studies.

The general aim of this thesis was to gain understanding of what patterns of child and environment characteristics that promote and sustain health and positive functioning of children with and without developmental delay or disabilities. The focus was on promotion of strengths and competencies rather than on prevention of risk factors, with an emphasis on children’s functioning in every-day life. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies were conducted on representative samples of children. In Study I, participation in school activities were used as an outcome of positive functioning of children with disabilities. The findings indicated that autonomy, locus of control, child-peer interaction, and availability of activities were most influential in relation to participation in a pattern of child and environment factors. No significant difference was found across groups in type and degree of disability. Study II was conducted to gain knowledge of how young children perceive health. The interviews revealed that children perceived health in a multidimensional perspective, well represented by the health dimensions of ICF. The children largely related consequences of health to engagement. In Study III, engagement was used as an outcome of children’s interaction with their natural environment. The focus was to describe how children with and without developmental delay, divided into homogenous groups according to a pattern of child-environment interaction factors, engaged in developmentally appropriate behavior in their preschool and home environment. Groups of children with different patterns showed similar outcomes of engagement. Children with developmental delay were represented across groups, implying that developmental delay was less of a factor by itself influencing level of engagement. Study IV was longitudinal and the aim was to identify pathways of children’s engagement over time of children with and without developmental delay. Child-peer interaction seemed to promote high level engagement, while developmental delay only showed to be influential of low level engagement over time if combined with behavior problems. Children without developmental delay or behavior problems were met with greater teacher responsiveness, and at the same time teacher responsiveness predicted stable patterns of high level engagement or change to higher level engagement over time. The general finding in this thesis supported a both a multidimensional perspective of health and positive functioning, in where developmental delay and disability is viewed as a function of child and environmental characteristics. The results are discussed in a systemic perspective, in where the role of the delay or disability, as of other factors related to health and positive functioning in the whole child-environment system is determined by a multitude of factors. The dynamic character of children’s development makes it difficult to predict children’s future functioning, from isolated factors such as disability or developmental delay. Thus, a disability or developmental delay only becomes a risk factor of health, when combined with other risk factors that decrease the functioning of children in their every-day life.

This study focus on the developing of an adventure-based experiential learning program (AEP) to address the personal functioning (positive functioning, self perception, trauma dynamics, relationships and decision making) of youths in the society. The methodology based on experiential learning, wilderness and adventure programming were investigated to research the impact of the AEP on the youths. This information was used to develop an AEP to implement, as an intervention, to enhance the personal functioning of the youths. For the purpose of this study, twenty-eight students between the ages of 17 -19 years from different culture groups in South Africa participated. The youths were enrolled in an adventure program at Beyond Adventure School, which is situated near Alexandria in the Eastern Cape Province. To compile a profile that can be used to develop an AEP, the assessment of the youths were done with the use of two questionnaires: The Comprehensive Functioning Inventory: Post - Matric (CFI - Post) and a general-reasons questionnaire, which gathered information about the reasons why the youths went to Beyond Adventure School. The CFI-Post measures the following components related to the functioning of the youth: positive functioning, self-perception, trauma dynamics, relationships and decision making. The results of the first test showed a negative profile of the youths personal functioning with the following problem areas: positive functioning, self-perception, trauma dynamics and decision making. This results showed a need to implement an AEP as intervention. The second test results after the AEP was implemented concluded that the AEP had a positive impact (with a effect size of p>0,5) on the personal functioning (the positive functioning, self-perception, trauma dynamics and decision making) of the youths. The conclusion this study has is that scientifically developed and implemented AEP has a direct impact on the personal functioning of youths and thus can be used as an intervention. / Thesis (M.A. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

This study focus on the developing of an adventure-based experiential learning program (AEP) to address the personal functioning (positive functioning, self perception, trauma dynamics, relationships and decision making) of youths in the society. The methodology based on experiential learning, wilderness and adventure programming were investigated to research the impact of the AEP on the youths. This information was used to develop an AEP to implement, as an intervention, to enhance the personal functioning of the youths. For the purpose of this study, twenty-eight students between the ages of 17 -19 years from different culture groups in South Africa participated. The youths were enrolled in an adventure program at Beyond Adventure School, which is situated near Alexandria in the Eastern Cape Province. To compile a profile that can be used to develop an AEP, the assessment of the youths were done with the use of two questionnaires: The Comprehensive Functioning Inventory: Post - Matric (CFI - Post) and a general-reasons questionnaire, which gathered information about the reasons why the youths went to Beyond Adventure School. The CFI-Post measures the following components related to the functioning of the youth: positive functioning, self-perception, trauma dynamics, relationships and decision making. The results of the first test showed a negative profile of the youths personal functioning with the following problem areas: positive functioning, self-perception, trauma dynamics and decision making. This results showed a need to implement an AEP as intervention. The second test results after the AEP was implemented concluded that the AEP had a positive impact (with a effect size of p>0,5) on the personal functioning (the positive functioning, self-perception, trauma dynamics and decision making) of the youths. The conclusion this study has is that scientifically developed and implemented AEP has a direct impact on the personal functioning of youths and thus can be used as an intervention. / Thesis (M.A. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.