This research has focused on the concept of intergenerational trauma, elaborating on the post-Apartheid condition. Drawing on trauma theory, such as that provided by clinical and psychoanalytic approaches on the one hand, and on narrative and identity theory on the other, the project examines the long-term implications of Apartheid, particularly for the identities of post-Apartheid generations. The families who participated in this study all experienced a particular traumatic event, personally experiencing the political violence of Apartheid. However, the study focused on how this event has been integrated into and represented in family histories, how what is ‘said’ and what remains ‘unsaid’ within families functions and constitutes their identities in their ongoing lived experiences. Women’s narratives, often considered secondary to the grand narratives of struggle and conflict, are drawn out to show the ways, as primary caregivers, they form the pivot for the (intergenerational) transmission of secondary traumatisation or for negotiating new versions of family history that make it possible for both them and their children to create meaningful lives in the shadow of their tragedies. Utilising a narrative method which explores the interactional dynamics, structure and content of participants’ stories, the narratives of these women and their children are analysed first for the ways in which what was said (and even what remained ‘unsaid’) was complicated by the ‘interactional dynamics’ of research and, in particular, research across a language divide. The second layer of analysis attends to the narrative structure or form in which the stories are told. The final phase of analysis focuses on the thematic content of the narratives. In telling classic ‘trauma’ stories, of the political deaths of family members and partners under Apartheid, these women spoke of events which marked ‘turning points’ in their lives and which continue to leave their mark in their embodied experience. They also told of navigating a context of continued and pervasive violence, speaking of the violences of today, particularly domestic and sexual violence and HIV/AIDS, and they link these to their own embodied experiences after the political trauma event. Through intergenerational talk on relationships and sexuality, mothers attempt to navigate and negotiate new versions of family history for their children, as they try to create lives for their children that are dissimilar to their own, particularly with regard to violence. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

My interest in the process and effects of the witnessing act guides the purpose of this study. Here, I initiate a deeper understanding of the vicarious witnessing experience from the perspective of the witnessing participant. My central question is: How do individuals make sense of vicariously witnessing trauma through narrative, visual, and evidence-based representations of traumatic events in the concentration camps of Europe? Vicarious witnessing begins with abstract representations of the event. The evidence is witnessed firsthand, but the event itself is represented through various perspectives such as photographic or artistic images, survivor stories, or physical remnants. Witnessing the evidence evokes a potent embodied experience, so that a person can make the statement, "I have imagined what another has experienced, hence I believe I know." It is through the imagination that a witness forms a picture of the trauma. Undoubtedly, there is immense power in meeting another's experience in the realm of imagination. Compassionate action and social justice is based in this area of human empathy. To best achieve my purpose, I use a narrative method that involves two types of analysis, interpretive readings and narrative instances, as an approach to understand the participant's experience of vicarious witnessing. Participants in this study construct three types of narrative texts-written, spoken, and visual. Each textual perspective shapes the meaning that the participant attempts to express. As a first level of analysis, interpretive readings of the texts include general, specific, visual, and relational readings. Secondly, through exploring the interaction between various parts of these texts, and between the texts themselves, I explore three types of narrative instances--single-text, intratextual, and intertextual. Each analysis of a narrative instance is matched specifically to each participant, and I believe, is uniquely adequate for understanding the experience of vicarious witnessing. My inquiry outlines how individuals make sense of vicariously witnessing trauma, clarifies the meaning that participants make of the vicarious witnessing experience, shows the risks and coping involved in vicarious witnessing, and presents the kinds of social action that vicarious witnessing evokes. In the field of counselling psychology, the witnessing experience is an important aspect of trauma theory that has been left unexplored by psychologists. My research enlarges the social and theoretical conversation concerning the vicarious witnessing experience.

Two-hundred and twenty-four participants who reported a history of child abuse trauma were recruited from the internet, clinical (community outpatient) and prison settings and completed a battery of assessment measures, including Briere's Child Maltreatment Interview Schedule (CMIS) (slightly modified), Detailed Assessment of Traumatic Stress (DAPS), Cognitive Distortion Scale (CDS), and Inventory of Altered Self Capacities (IASC); van der Kolk's Self Inventory of Disorders of Extreme Stress (SIDES-SR); Nijenhuis's Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire (SDQ-20); and a modification of the CMIS to assess for adult victimization experiences (Adult Victimization Survey or AVS; Dietrich, unpublished instrument). It was hypothesized that Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Affect Dysregulation, and Problems with Interpersonal Relatedness would be associated with later revictimization experiences during adulthood with this sample, and that disturbances in ability to regulate self capacities and other complex posttraumatic sequelae would be associated with perpetration of physical or sexual violence during adulthood. Data were analyzed for 207 individuals who reported childhood maltreatment per the CMIS. Results provide partial support for the hypotheses. Women were significantly more likely to report revictimization, and male inmates were significantly more likely to perpetrate against others. Whereas PTSD and Somatoform Dissociation are the strongest dynamic predictors of any sexual or physical revictimization, Impaired Self Capacities are more often associated with revictimization by intimate partners in particular. Trauma-specific dissociation was associated with a decreased risk of revictimization, whereas peritraumatic and trait dissociation did not enter predictive models. Posttraumatic sequelae were not associated with increased risk of physical perpetration with these samples; however, IASC scores were associated with an increased risk of sexual perpetration and victim-based cognitive distortions were associated with decreased odds of sexual violence. These findings provide partial support for the Complex PTSD (Herman, 1992a) construct. Results are discussed in terms of implications for treatment, further study, and classification. Limitations are noted.

The purpose of this thesis is to locate the experience of individuals in the shared experience of a cultural community, to reveal a collective experience. Further, this thesis aspires to demonstrate that the experience of trauma is transmitted, often silently, intergenerationally. This is an attempt to define a community of distant survivors, and to locate the echoes of the voice of trauma hidden in the narratives of its members. The study explores the events of the December 2004 Southeast Asian tsunami. At the moment of the tsunami disaster all the participants in this study, Indonesian International Students, were studying in Montreal Canada. The impetus behind this qualitative inquiry into the essential experience of trauma is the desire to bring the experience of distant survivors to the foreground; to recognize vicarious victims by listening for echoes in their narratives. The aim of this thesis is to (1) locate personal narratives in the context of collective grief, (2) detect the re-creation of that grief in subsequent generations. This project has been undertaken with the hope of determining ever more effective social work practices for today's survivors, and of sparking interest in trauma research for tomorrow's victims.

<p><font face="Times New Roman"> <p align="left">Limitations of the study include the issue of counsellor variables and the fact that the participants varied between receiving a debriefing on a group or individual basis. The experience of the trauma debriefings were explored but more specific information relating to debriefing could have been elicited. Therefore, these findings cannot be generalised and further research could<font face="Times New Roman"> explore the utility and efficacy of trauma debriefing.</font></p> </font></p>

The TRC hearings is the most important form of assessment in the South African social system yet, because it was used as an evaluation of social life and trauma under apartheid. Both victims and perpetrators therefore, took the TRC seriously. The Khulumani support group observes that the TRC achievement in reconciliation and reparation needs further consideration to make proper reparation. The purpose of this study is to understand why political victims are still hurting in post apartheid South Africa. The empirical research comprises of a survey of 10 victims of political trauma. The survey questionnaire solicits information on kinds of trauma, the impact of trauma on individual and community, and the shattering of mental schemas amongst others. The survey revealed that most victims of political trauma are probably females, middle aged and illiterate. These people need to find themselves forms of guidance from older and more experienced victims. In addition, the survey revealed that although the value of psychological help was recognized, most victims did not attend such programs. Victims also said that, "the Government had not recognized their hurts". It can therefore be concluded that the government is still accountable for the state victims are in. The pilot research studies also revealed that the victims' high expectations are measured or based on the material things that they see political leaders having. However, achievement should be consistent with availability of resources, education, and psychological help for the victims themselves. Furthermore, the case stories showed that there are valid problems that these victims continue to experience. There is an urgency for more focused research into parameters that define effectiveness and efficiency in helping political victims in South Africa. Furthermore, it is imperative that the country deliberately increases psychological help. In addition there is a need to increase financial assistance. Finally, it is important to localize support groups, and to develop alternative ways to educate the existing traumatized victims. On this respect Christian Counselling groups may be of assistance. / Thesis (M.A)-University of Durban-Westville, 2005.

The experience of living through an unexpected, life-threatening cardiovascular surgery can be a profound. This study examined the experience of 4 men who had survived ruptured aortic aneurysm using a phenomenological research design.Audio-taped interviews were analyzed for common themes and patterns. Two strong, opposing constitutive patterns were found. The patterns the data conveyed were: 1) fear as a response to overwhelming pain and clouded perceptions, and 2) gratitude for recovery in an atmosphere of caring support.This study was significant in beginning to bring to understanding the phenomenon of surviving major, unexpected cardiovascular surgical trauma. It is recommended that health care providers be more attentive to similar patients' experiences and listen to how their lives have changed as a result of their experiences. / School of Nursing

This study investigated links between sexual assault experiences, posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), and adverse physical health outcomes among adult women. Existing models in which posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) mediate the relationship between trauma exposure and physical health outcomes have been established within a variety of trauma populations, but had yet to be specifically tested with the trauma of sexual assault. Through the use of structural equation modelling (SENT), support was found for a model in which posttraumatic stress symptom (PTSS) severity partially mediates the association between sexual assault exposure and physical health problems. While PTSS severity served as a partial mediator, it was revealed that depression symptoms did not A multivariate multiple regression was conducted to test whether the three PTSD symptom clusters (i.e., reexperiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms) were differentially related to physical health outcomes, but it was found that no single symptom cluster explained the association between PTSD and adverse physical health outcomes. It was revealed, however. that reexperiencing symptoms and avoidance symptoms had unique associations with health care utilization and health perceptions, respectively. Finally. A unique relationship between sexual assault exposure and reproductive and sexual health problems was revealed, suggesting that this is a particularly important area of health concern among sexual assault survivors.

This study investigated the resourcing experiences of children and youth attending office-based, tri-phasic trauma treatment. Ten participants were recruited from both private and agency based clinical psychology or counselling practices. During semi-structured, in-depth interviews participants described their resourcing experiences. The data were analyzed using the descriptive, phenomenological, and psychological method of Amedeo Giorgi. The results revealed a basic structure in the resourcing experiences of the child participants which was comprised of 12 constituents: (a) perceived attitude of the therapist, (b) personal and contextual relevance, (c) currency, (d) choice and control, (e) calming, (f) unsticking, (g) experiential, (h) triumph, (i) internal ease, (j) needing a guide, (k) naming the resource, and (l) betterment. The findings contribute to an understanding of the resourcing experience of youth in trauma therapy by adding the client’s voice to the therapeutic process. Implications for clinical practice and further research are presented. / Graduate

Past research on adult memory for childhood sexual abuse (CSA) has provided support for the phenomenon of forgetting and subsequent recovery of the memories, after a period of time. This phenomenon, however, remains a source of debate and is still not fully understood by researchers and psychological and legal practitioners. The research has provided conflicting evidence about the factors which are thought to lead to CSA forgetting for extensive periods of time, in addition to the processes involved in forgetting, triggering and later remembering of the abuse memories by adult survivors. This study utilised a mixed method to investigate and explore the factors and processes associated with CSA forgetting, triggering and later remembering, in a sample of Australian adult CSA survivors (N = 77). Participants were asked to complete a test booklet, containing the Traumatic Events Questionnaire (TEQ), Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R), Dissociative Experiences Scale II (DES II), Impact of Events Scale - Revised (IES-R), a scale designed to measure persistence of memory (Loftus), and a scale designed to measure emotional intensity at the time of the abuse and now (Williams). Participants were then asked to participate in a semi-structured interview. Seventy-one participants completed the interview process. Five separate analyses were conducted on the data. Methodological issues, such as the use of retrospective data and corroboration of the abuse were outlined. All participants were asked to provide details about any corroboration they had received that the abuse had occurred. The participants were streamed into one of three categories of forgetting (Always Remembered, n = 28; Partial Forgetting, n = 16; and Extensive Forgetting, n = 33). The first analysis (Stage One Analysis One) examined the factors thought to be associated with CSA forgetting, such as abuse parameters (TEQ), current psychological functioning (SCL-90-R), persistence of memory (Loftus), emotional intensity at the time of the abuse and now (Williams), the trauma response experienced at the time of the abuse (IES-R), and current dissociation (DES II), to determine the significant differences between the three groups. A significant difference was found regarding the age at which the abuse commenced, with the Extensive Forgetting group reporting an earlier age at which the abuse commenced. Significant differences were found on the variable that related to being abused by an aunt or uncle, and on the current experience of hostility (SCL-90-R sub-scale), and on the current levels of anger (Williams Emotional Intensity) experienced by the participants. Significant differences between the groups were also found on two of the Persistence of Memory items, namely clarity of memory and participants' memory of the tastes related to the abuse. Finally, a significant difference was found on the participants' current dissociation levels, with the Extensive Forgetting group reporting higher levels of current dissociation than the other two groups. Statistical profiles for each of the three groups were constructed, based on the mean scores of the SCL-90-R, IES-R and DES II, for use in the Stage Two, Analysis Two, profile comparison. Stage Two, Analysis One, provided a qualitative analysis relating to the experience of always remembering the abuse. The aim of this analysis was to provide a deeper understanding of why some participants (n = 23) did not forget about their abuse, when other participants reported being able to forget for a period of time. The results indicated that participants' responses formed clusters, such as older age at abuse onset, failed dissociative mechanisms, constant reminders, and others. Stage Two, Analysis Two, presented and compared each participant's profile against the statistical profiles constructed in Stage One. The participant's profiles included a summary of their TEQ responses and interview responses, in addition to their Stage One test booklet scores. The comparison was made, firstly, on a specific basis against the mean scores obtained by each category of forgetting, and secondly, on a broader basis, against the score range for each measure of the statistical profile. This was done to determine if there was a "typical" member of each category of forgetting and to investigate the within-group differences. The specific profile comparison demonstrated that there was no "typical" member of any of the three groups, with participants varying widely in their scores and patterns of scores. However, when the profile comparison was broadened to include score ranges, 61% of participants, who always remembered the abuse, 44% of participants who partially forgot the abuse, and 47% of participants who extensively forgot their abuse, matched the profile of a "typical" member of their relevant category of forgetting. Stage Two, Analysis Three, provided an in-depth qualitative exploration on the process involved in CSA forgetting, triggering and later remembering, for a selection of participants who reported partially forgetting the abuse (n = 6), and extensively forgetting the abuse (n = 10). Participants' interview responses were transcribed verbatim and analysed, using Interview Analysis. This analysis explored the differences between participants, from the two categories of forgetting, on their experiences of CSA forgetting, triggering and later remembering, in addition to exploring how these participants were able to forget about the abuse; what events triggered their abuse memories; and how the initial memories returned. Issues of memory recovery, while in therapy or under hypnosis, were also explored. Stage Two, Analysis Four, presented the case study of a participant, who had been identified as an "outlier", due to her high score on the DES II, claims of being able to remember abuse incidents that occurred prior to the age of two years, diagnosis of DID, and the substantiated conviction and sentencing of her abuser, based on her recovered memories of the abuse and corroboration from her sister and mother. Her case was examined against some of the criticisms often made by false memory supporters. This thesis found that some CSA survivors forgot about their abuse, either partially or extensively. The thesis also found support for some, but not all, of the factors that previous researchers have identified as being associated with CSA forgetting by adult survivors, specifically the individual's age at the time the abuse commenced and the individual's ability to dissociate from the abuse. The research then explored, in-depth, the issues of: CSA remembering, CSA survivor profiling, and the "how" of CSA forgetting, triggering and later remembering, by adult survivors.