This thesis explores preschoolers' use of causal-associations (associations between specific instrument and effects) and causal relations incorporating knowledge of transformation from initial to final states. Gelman, Bullock and Meek (1980) claimed that preschoolers use causal relations. However, in their study it was possible to make correct choices using causal-associations. Therefore, in Experiments 1 and 2 tasks were designed to distinguish between use of the two relations. Preschoolers made inferences about instruments which could produce the transformations depicted within event sequences (based on those used by Gelman et al.). Performance on tasks requiring selection of causal relations was significantly worse than performance on tasks where causal-associations could be used. Two methods of reasoning, Relational (causal) and Associative- Causal Matching, were identified. Modified versions of the tasks in Experiment 1 were used in Experiments 3, 4 and 5. Four-year-olds were more proficient at using Relational Methods than 3-year-olds although both ages demonstrated the ability to use this method. In Experiment 6 children had to construct sequences. Three-year-olds preferred associative constructions to causal ones. This preference may have influenced their performance in the previous experiments. Experiments 1, 2, 3 and 5 incorporated sequences with compound end-states (e.g. wet and broken cup). Three-year-olds clearly preferred to focus on just one of these attributes, chosen on the basis of salience. This preference evidently contributed to their lower scores throughout these experiments. However, even when relative salience was controlled (Experiment 7) or when single attributes were used (Experiment 4) 3-year-olds' performance was worse than 4-year-olds' in terms of choices based on causal relations. These experiments indicate that preschoolers use both Associative-Causal and Relational Methods. There is evidence for a shift from a preference for judgements based on associative relations to a preference for causal relations between 3 and 5 years. The ability to deal with compound features also appears to develop over the preschool years.

Thesis (MA) -- University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The main aim of the present study was to explore the nature of pre-school parenting in a low to average socio-economic target suburb in the Goodwood Municipal area. Specific attention was given to the main parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian or permissive) utilized by the sample of parents of pre-school children included in this research. Attention was also given to 11 specific parenting dimensions included in the parenting styles and to the levels of psychological control utilized by the sample parents included. The relationship between parenting and certain biographical variables, such as culture and gender of the child, as well as with the specific developmental outcome of expressed fears in their pre-school children was also investigated. Data on the expressed fears, with regard to number, as reported by the pre-school children, was obtained in a related study (Keller, in press). Participants in the current study (N=91) included the fathers (n=43) and mothers (n=48) of the pre-school children (N=50) utilized in the related study (Keller, in press). Measures included a Biographical Questionnaire, the Parenting Styles & Dimensions Questionnaire (PSD) and the Psychological Control Scale. The study revealed that the majority of pre-school parents in this low to average socioeconomic status area predominantly utilized an authoritative parenting style, complemented by high levels of responsiveness, warmth and support, and low levels of psychological control. Further exploration revealed that psychological controlling parenting style characteristic of parents in this target area, reflects non-reasoning or punitive parenting in both fathers and mothers, while highly responsive mothers exhibit low levels of psychological control. Consistent with previous South African research, similarities in parenting outweighed the differences (Gerdes, Coetzee & Cronjé, 1996). Firstly, the study revealed a significant positive correlation between paternal and maternal parenting. Secondly, the study revealed that no statistically significant cross-cultural differences exist between parenting utilized by the white and coloured pre-school parents included in this research. Furthermore, besides mothers reporting higher democratic participation in parenting with the pre-school girls than boys, no other cross-gender differences exist between paternal and maternal parenting style, the included dimensions and psychological control. Contrary to previous research linking permissive parenting to internalizing behaviour in pre-school children (Hart et al., 1995), a positive relationship was found between maternal authoritative parenting style and the amount of expressed fears (r=O.35; p<O.05) in pre-school children. To validate these findings, it is necessary to measure other internalizing behaviours in pre-school children as well. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoofdoelwit van die huidige studie was om ondersoek in te stel na die aard van ouerskap in "n lae tot middel sosio-ekonomiese teiken-area in die Goodwood Munisipale gebied. Spesifieke aandag is geskenk aan die tipe ouerskapstyl (outoritatief, outoritêr of permissief) wat die meeste benut word deur die steekproef ouers van voorskoolse kinders. Aandag is ook geskenk aan 11 spesifieke ouerskapdimensies wat deur die bogenoemde ouerskapstyle omvat word en ook aan die vlakke van psigologiese beheer wat kenmerkend is van ouerskap deur die steekproef ouers ingesluit in die studie. Die verhouding tussen ouerskap en die biografiese veranderlikes soos kultuur en geslag van die kind en ook die spesifieke ontwikkelingsuitkoms van gerapporteerde vrese deur die voorskoolse kinders van die steekproef ouers, is ook ondersoek. Data van toepassing op die aantal gerapporteerde vrese van die voorskoolse kinders is ingesamel tydens 'n verwante studie (Keller, in druk). Deelnemers aan die huidige studie (N=91) het die vaders (n=43) en moeders (n=48) van die voorskoolse kinders (N=50) wat in die verwante studie geselekteer is, ingesluit (Keller, in druk). Meetinstrumente wat aangewend is tydens data-insameling in die huidige studie het 'n Biografiese vraelys, die Parenting Styles & Dimensions Questionnaire (PSD) en die Psychological Control Scale ingesluit. Die studie het bevind dat die meerderheid voorskoolse ouers in hierdie lae - tot middel klas sosio-ekonomiese area oorwegend 'n outoritatiewe ouerskapstyl benut, wat aangevul word deur hoë vlakke van responsiwiteit, warmte en ondersteuning, en lae vlakke van psigologiese beheer. Verdere ondersoek het aan die lig gebring dat psigologiese beheer deur ouers in hierdie teikenarea gekenmerk word deur nieredenerende of strawwende ouerskap in beide vaders en moeders, terwyl hoogresponsiewe moeders lae vlakke van psigologiese beheer toon. In ooreenstemming met vorige Suid-Afrikaanse navorsing, het ooreenkomste in ouerskap ook in hierdie studie verskille oortref (Gerdes, Coetzee & Cronjé, 1996). Eerstens het die studie' n positiewe korrelasie tussen paterna Ie en maternale ouerskap uitgelig. Tweedens het die studie aan die lig gebring dat daar nie beduidende kruiskulturele verskille tussen ouerskap van die steekproef blanke en gekleurde ouers bestaan nie. Behalwe vir moeders wat meer demokratiese deelname rapporteer tydens ouerskap van die voorskoolse dogters as seuns, is geen ander geslagsverskille ten opsigte van hantering van voorskoolse seuns en dogters gemeld tussen maternale en paterna Ie ouerskapstyl, die ingeslote dimensies en psigologiese beheer nie. In teenstelling met vorige navorsing wat permissiewe ouerskap verbind aan internaliserende gedrag in voorskoolse kinders (Hart et al., 1995), het die huidige studie 'n -positiewe verhouding gevind tussen maternale demokratiese ouerskapstyl en die aantal vrese gerapporteer deur die voorskoolse kinders (r=O.35; p<O.05). Verdere navorsing wat ook ander internaliserende gedrag in voorskoolse kinders meet, is nodig om hierdie bevindinge te valideer.

Thesis (M.A.) -- Stellenbosch University , 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The primary aim of this study was to establish the content and number of the fears expressed by pre-school children in a low to middle class socio-economic area. In South Africa, a similar study has only been undertaken in a high class socio-economic area (Martalas, 1999). A further aim of this study was to establish whether there were differences in the fears expressed by the participants and, if so, whether these differences correlate with specific biographical variables. A predominantly qualitative method of data collection was used in this research. The data was collected by conducting a semi-structured interview with the participants and obtaining drawings of their fears. The sample included 50 pre-school children between the ages of 5 and 7 years attending 3 preschools in a low to middle class socio-economic area. The broad non-verbal intelligence functioning of the participants were measured by the Goodenough-Harris-Draw-a-Man test (Richter, Griesel en Wortley, 1989). The average non-verbal intelligence functioning of the participants was low average according to the DAM norms. The data was analysed quantitatively. The content and number of fears, as reported by the selected group of pre-school children in the low to middle class socio-economic area, were established and grouped into existing categories. Furthermore the relationship between the number of expressed fears, with regard to content and number, and the three biographical variables, gender, socio-economic status and parent report, was established. Accordingly, differences between and correlations with biographical variables regarding race, parental marital positions, sibling structures, education of parents, their working patterns and the fears reported by parents, as well as by the participants were calculated quantitatively. The method of combining a semi-structured interview with participants and drawings of their fears proved to be successful, as none of the participants reported no fears. The results of this research showed that the content of the fears was similar in many ways to that of previous research results. Animal fears, at 57,24 % of all the fears expressed by the participants, comprised by far the largest category of fears. The number of the expressed fears ranged from 1 to 10 per participant, and the average number of fears per participant was 2,9. This figure was lower than the average number of fears found in previous South African research (Martalas, 1999). Consistent with previous research, the current study showed that girls (63,45 %) had reported more fears than boys (36,55 %). In the current study however, this difference was not statistically significant. Some gender differences were statistically significant in that girls reported more fears of wild animals than boys and boys reported more fears in the category "other" fears (for example a fan, a brick, a bomb, an accident and videos) than girls. Although these results differ from South African research by Martalas (1999) research, it is similar to most other research results. Parents reported fewer fears than the participants and they also reported the category "medical", which the participants did not mention. Parents also reported more fears for girls than for the boys. The researcher concludes with some recommendations for further studies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die primêre doel van die onderhawige studie was om die inhoud en aantal vrese soos uitgedruk deur voorskoolse kinders in 'n lae tot middel sosio-ekonomiese statusgebied te bepaal. So 'n studie is in die verlede slegs in 'n hoë sosio-ekonomiese statusgebied in Suid-Afrika gedoen (Martalas, 1999). 'n Newe-doelstelling van die onderhawige studie was om vas te stelof daar verskille is tussen die vrese soos uitgedruk deur die deelnemers en, indien wel, of hierdie verskille verband hou met sekere biografiese veranderlikes. In die onderhawige navorsing is 'n oorwegend kwalitatiewe metode van datainsameling gebruik. Die data is ingesamel deur gebruik te maak van 'n semigestruktureerde onderhoud met die deelnemers, terwyl hulle terselfdertyd tekeninge gemaak het van dit wat hulle vrees. Die teikengroep was 50 voorskoolse kinders tussen die ouderdomme van 5 en 7 jaar wat drie kleuterskole in 'n lae tot middel sosioekonomiese status gebied bygewoon het. Die deelnemers se benaderde nie-verbale intellektuele funksionering is met behulp van die Goodenough-Harris-Draw-a-Man toets (Richter, Griesel en Wortley, 1989) bepaal. Die deelnemers het In oorwegend laag gemiddelde skaaltelling volgens die DAM norms (Harris, 1963) getoon. Die data is kwantitatief geanaliseer. Die inhoud en aantal vrese, soos deur die geselekteerde groep voorskoolse kinders in 'n lae tot middel sosio-ekonomiese statusgebied gerapporteer, is bepaal. Dit is in samehang met veranderlikes naamlik geslag, sosio-ekonomiese status en ouerrapportering gedoen. Die inhoud en aantal vrese, soos deur die deelnemers gerapporteer, is daarna volgens bestaande kategorieë ingedeel. Vervolgens is verskille tussen, en korrelasies met biografiese veranderlikes, soos geslag, huwelikstatus, sibbestruktuur, opvoeding en werkpatroon van ouers, ouerrapportering van vrese by hul kinders en die vrese wat die deelnemers gerapporteer het, kwantitatief bepaal. http://scholar.sun.ac.za/ IV Die metode om gebruik te maak van 'n kombinasie van die teken van vrese en 'n semigestruktureerde onderhoud met die deelnemers was suksesvol, aangesien daar geen deelnemers was wat nie gerespondeer het nie. Die resultate van die onderhawige navorsing het getoon dat die inhoud van die vrese in baie opsigte ooreengestem het met die van ander navorsingsbevindings. Gerapporteerde vrese vir diere, wat 57,24 % van al die genoemde vrese verteenwoordig het, was by uitstek die grootste kategorie van vrese. Die aantal vrese wat genoem is, het gestrek van 1 tot lOper deelnemer en die gemiddelde aantal vrese per deelnemer was 2,9. Dit was egter minder as by vorige Suid-Afrikaanse navorsing van dieselfde ouderdomsgroep volgens die navorsing van Martalas (1999). In ooreenstemming met die meeste navorsingsresultate, het meisies In die onderhawige studie meer vrese (63,45 %) as 'seuns (36,55 %) gerapporteer, hoewel hierdie verskil nie statisties beduidend was nie. Sommige geslagverskille was statisties beduidend in die sin dat meisies meer vrese vir wilde diere as seuns en seuns meer in die kategorie "ander" vrese, soos byvoorbeeld vir 'n waaier, 'n baksteen, bomme, om omgery te word en videos, as meisies gerapporteer het. Hoewel dit van Martalas (1999) se navorsingsresultate verskil, is dit in ooreenstemming met die meeste ander navorsingsbevindinge. Ouers het minder vrese namens hulle kinders as die deelnemers self gerapporteer en vrese is in die kategorie "medies" gerapporteer wat nie deur die deelnemers self gerapporteer is nie. Ouers het ook meer vrese namens die meisies as namens die seuns gerapporteer. Enkele aanbevelings vir verdere navorsing word ten slotte gemaak.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts (Clinical Psychology). Johannesburg, 1981 / The present study aimed first, at determining whether part-time (nursery-school attendance), and a full-time (day-care attendance) quantitative disruption in motherchild interaction, affects the child’s separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, frustration tolerance and general coping mechanisms. Second, the effect of the quality of mothering (the degree of maternal acceptance and responsiveness) on the child's separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, frustration tolerance and general coping mechanisms was assessed. Thirdly and fourthly, this study aimed at determining whether the age and the sex of the child affect the separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, frustration tolerance and general coping mechanisms exhibited by that child; and finally whether there is a relationship between separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, frustration tolerance and general coping mec hanisms. Fifty-six four-year-olds and their mothers were observed. These included 14 children who stayed home with their mothers; 14 children attending nursery-school; 14 children attending a day-care centre from the age of three; and 14 children attending a day-care centre froc the age of one. A problem-solving task was administered to the children to obtain a measure of their frustration tolerance; a modified version of the Ainsworth-Wittig Strange-Situation Procedure was employed to measure the children's separation anxiety and stranger anxiety;

Two experiments were conducted to test the effectiveness of a peer-monitoring procedure on the induction of observational learning and observational performance of preschoolers via a combined experimental-control group design with a “nested” multiple probe across participants design (Greer & Du, 2015; Greer, Stolfi, & Pistoljevic, 2007). Six participants in Experiment 1 were split into matched pairs; one participant in each pair was assigned to the in-vivo condition, and one assigned to the video condition. All were assessed on their correct responding to in-vivo observational learning and performance probes prior to and following the peer-monitoring intervention. The peer-monitoring intervention consisted of two stages; the first was a training stage, in which participants monitored responses of peer confederates that were previously in their repertoire, and the second stage required participants to monitor responses not in their repertoire. The results of Experiment 1 showed that five of the six participants demonstrated that they had observational performance following the intervention. However, the emergence of the observational learning capability was only found with participants originally assigned to the in-vivo intervention condition. Upon completing the intervention again, but in the in-vivo condition, all participants originally assigned to the video intervention condition did demonstrate observational learning. In Experiment 2, the same procedures were implemented, however the observational performance and learning pre-and post-intervention probes were conducted in both the video and in-vivo conditions. In addition, I also tested the effects of the peer-monitoring procedure on the emission of social contact in a free play setting between experimental conditions. The findings remained constant in Experiment 2; the video condition was not effective in inducing observational learning, but was for observational performance. Therefore, the peer-monitoring intervention led to the emergence of observational performance, but the presence of a peer audience was required in order for observational learning to emerge. Furthermore, participants originally assigned to the in-vivo condition emitted higher numbers of social contact in a free play setting than the participants originally assigned video condition.

Explicit memory refers to conscious or deliberate recollection of recent events and experiences, whereas implicit memory is revealed when the same events and experiences affect performance in the absence of conscious recollection. It is well known that implicit and explicit memory develop differently across the life span: Explicit memory is acquired in early childhood, remains stable across adulthood, and then decreases in later life, whereas implicit memory develops earlier in childhood and remains intact well into late adulthood (for review see Graf, 1990). To explain this pattern of results, it has been suggested that implicit memory performance is mediated by automatic processing, whereas explicit memory performance is mediated by subject controlled processing, such as goals and strategies (e.g., Craik, 1983). My thesis examines whether development during the preschool years has the same effect or different effects on implicit and explicit memory test performance. Toward this goal, I first collected normative data to establish baserate performance on category production tests for use in the main experiment. Subjects consisted of 96 preschoolers and production norms were gathered for 7 different categories. The procedure involved reading a brief story to focus subjects attention on a category and required them to name 5 items from that category. Test performance showed two notable findings. First, some categories had a more gradual drop-off in response rate distributions than others, and second, differences in response rates for the different age groups were greater in some categories than others. The main part of this thesis is an experiment that examined whether development has the same effect or different effects on implicit and explicit memory test performance. Subjects for this study consisted of groups of 12 3-, 4-, and 5-year olds (n=36). The method involved presenting subjects with category production and category cued-recall tests for previously studied items. The items were selected from the norms according to three criteria: frequency of occurrence in the norms was not at floor or ceiling, occurrence frequencies were similar across age groups, and each item was representable as a picture. During the study phase five items were studied from each of 4 categories: CLOTHES, TRAVEL, PLAYGROUND, and ZOO. Ten of the 20 items (5 per category) were studied by each subject -- 5 in a non-elaborative study condition that required subjects to name each item and 5 in an elaborative study condition that asked them to name each item and answer a question about real-life aspects/uses of the item (e.g., "Do boys wear dresses?"). Two sets of target items that were not studied were used to assess baserate performance. The testing phase occurred immediately after the study phase. Implicit memory performance was assessed with category production tests using the same procedure as for the norms study. Explicit memory was assessed with a category cued-recall test. The critical findings from the implicit memory tests were: more priming in the elaborative than in the non-elaborative study conditions, and similarly large priming effects across age-groups. The explicit memory test results showed that performance increased across age-groups, but only for materials in the non-elaborative study condition. In the elaborative study condition 3-year olds' performance was comparable to that of the 5-year olds. The present thesis illustrated the distinction between implicit and explicit memory performance. Furthermore, it supports the hypothesis that while there is overlap of some of the components mediating these forms of memory, particularly related to storage of materials, there are significant differences between other mediating processes of implicit and explicit memory that are more closely associated with retrieval of materials. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

Thesis (MEdPsych)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: My study aims to explore whether a Developmental Play Programme can be implemented in a primary school with learners, using trained volunteer therapists from an old age home in the area. I also looked at the experiences of the learners and that of the volunteer therapists using Developmental Play Therapy as a therapeutic technique. The technique facilitates the development of child-adult relationships that are necessary for the development of children. The research is in the form of a qualitative case study. It is approached from an ecosystemic perspective i.e. learners are viewed as a core system which in turn is part of several other systems, for example the family, school, church, community etc. The systems are interdependent, which means that change in the one system also results in change within other systems. In the data production video recordings, unstructured interviews, observations and field notes are used. Data analysis was done using principles of coding. The results of the study show that Developmental Play Therapy is indeed an effective psychotherapeutic technique to use in a primary school with a group of learners and to use senior citizens as volunteer therapists to do the therapy. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel met die studie is om na te vors of die Ontwikkelende speelprogram op leerders in 'n primêre skool toegepas kan word, deur inwoners van 'n ouetehuis in die area op te lei as vrywillige terapeute. Ek het die ervaringe van die leerders en die van die vrywillige terapeute observeer waar Ontwikkelende Speelterapie as terapeutiese tegniek toegepas is. Die tegniek bevorder onder andere die ontwikkeling van ouer - kindverhoudings, wat noodsaaklik is vir die ontwikkeling van kinders. Die navorsing neem die vorm van 'n kwalitatiewe gevallestudie aan. Dit word benader vanuit 'n ekosistemiese perspektief, dit wil sê die leerders word gesien as die kernsisteem wat deel is van verskeie ander sisteme soos byvoorbeeld die familie, skool, kerk en gemeenskap. Die sisteme is interafhanklik wat beteken dat verandering in een sisteem ook verandering in die ander sisteme tot gevolg het. In die data - produksie is tegnieke naamlik video - opnames, ongestruktureerde onderhoude, observasies en veldnotas gebruik. Data - analise is volgens die beginsels van kodering gedoen. Die resultate van die onderhewige studie toon dat Ontwikkelende speelterapie 'n effektiewe psigoterapeutiese tegniek is om in 'n primêre skool te gebruik met 'n groep leerders, en om gebruik te maak van senior burgers as vrywillige terapeute om die terapie te doen.

The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between attachment and emotion understanding in preschoolers. Data was collected from 16 preschool children and their mothers recruited from a private learning center in a downtown metropolitan area. Attachment was measured by use of the Attachment Q-sort, 3.0 (Waters, 1995), while emotion understanding was assessed through use of Denham's (1986) affective perspective-taking task and interviews of children concerning naturally occurring emotions and emotion causes (Fabes et al., 1991). Results included a significant correlation (p < .05) between secure attachment and preschooler's ability to decipher the cause of another's emotion; however, a significant correlation was not found between secure attachment and preschooler's perspective-taking ability or ability to name other's emotions. Thus, conclusions about the impact of attachment upon emotion understanding were mixed, and more research on the subject was implicated.

The study examined preschool students’ use of thinking strategies when responding to deep structure questions during interactive book readings. The children were enrolled in two different inclusive preschool classrooms in a large Midwestern city. The study explored which thinking strategies the preschool children used when answering deep structure questions. Also under investigation was the potential difference in usage of thinking strategies between general education and special education students. Data collected included observations and frequency tallies. Information gathered was analyzed using independent sample T-Tests. The classrooms were combined to generate a larger population. Analysis showed the preschool students in the two inclusive preschool classrooms used all seven thinking strategies during interactive book read alouds. Frequency counts revealed a higher mean usage of schema, making inferences, and determining importance. Further, these strategies were as likely to be used by a general education student as a special education student. Based on the results of the study, teachers should guide and instruct their students about stories within discussions. Teachers should also select engaging texts guided by student interest, student background, or classroom project. This will allow them to build on information that students have and also create learning opportunities in the classroom that affects the classroom community. / Department of Elementary Education

This research study investigated the effectiveness of the application of child-centered play therapy procedures and skills by trained fifth grade students in play sessions with kindergarten children who had adjustment difficulties. Specifically, this research determined if play sessions with trained fifth grade students facilitated change in kindergarten children's self concept, internalizing behavior, and externalizing behavior and their parents' stress level.