Private branding strategy plays an important role for international retailers entering Asian grocery markets since there is a consensus that it helps retailers not only improve the store profitability but also differentiate themselves from other competitors. However, our present understanding of consumer responses to private brand (PB) is mainly based on studies of Western markets that have long PB development history. Generally speaking, European and American consumers have sophomore purchase experience and well familiarity with local retailers and their own brand products. Little scholarly research has examined factors influencing consumers’ selection of private brands offered by international retailers in Asian countries such as Taiwan. The purpose of this thesis is to identify how individual characteristics can be used in predicting Taiwanese consumers’ preferences for private brands since a successful marketing strategy is always based on well understanding how preferences vary with consumer factors. This thesis first reviews previous studies of PB and presents the results of six focus groups in Taiwan. These results identify six key consumer characteristic variables (i.e. price consciousness, perceived PB quality, perceived PB risk, store reputation reliance, innovativeness and familiarity with PB) influencing consumers’ PB attitude and purchase intention. This thesis then proposes a model that integrates these six consumer characteristic variables. In view of the potential store difference, data were collected from two international retailers, Carrefour and 7-11, in Taiwan. A total of 409 useable questionnaires (222 from the on-line surveys and 187 from face-to-face interviewing) were collected and analyzed. The findings revealed that Taiwanese consumers are more concerned about the quality than the price of these international retailers’ PB products. The results also demonstrate that when consumers are more familiar with international retailers’ PB, they have more confidence in evaluating product quality, reducing perceived PB risk and enhancing price consciousness of PB in the same time. Similarly, when consumers perceived better store reputation, they will perceive better quality of the PB and have better PB attitude and higher purchase intention toward the retailer’s PB. More importantly, this paper verified that innovative private brand can increase consumers’ perception of private brand quality and ultimately increase their intention to buy it. Also, this thesis finds that some consumer characteristics variables have more correlation with PB purchase intention and the contribution of the variables varies from Carrefour to 7-11. In general, however, perceptual variables have stronger prediction power than personal and socio-economic variables. These findings highlight the importance of consumers’ familiarity with PB and perceived quality of PB and suggest that managers should increase various promotional activities to facilitate consumers’ familiarity with their PB. For example, they can offer free samples or tasting at the point of sale, to increase consumers’ familiarity with their PB products in the future. More academic and managerial implications and suggestions for future research are discussed in the conclusion chapter.

In recent years, it is more and more popular to find Private Barnd in Convenience Stores, Hyper Markets, Super Markets and Boutique Stores. Private brand is the naturally outcome of chained retailers with bigger economic scale. It can bring more profits, and at the same time, it can raise the bargaining power of retailers to against the national brands. And most important of all, private barnd would create differentiated competitive adventage for reatilers. Therefore, it is very necessary for reatilers to understand consumers¡¦ attitudes and purchasing intentions for private brand products. Most of the researches in the past were focused on external characteristics, such as demograpghical variables but ingored consumers¡¦ psychological characteristics which usually dominate consumers¡¦ attitudes. And most of the researches were implemented based on Hyper or Super Market channels. This research wants to know how consumers feel about private barnd products in chained convenience stores, what kind of persons like or dislike private brands. Consumers¡¦ characteristics include psychological characteristics, demographical variables and store image. The research uses questionnaire method in front of convenience stores, and the main purpose of this questionnaire is to analyze the relationship between demographical variables, psychological variables, promotion intentions, store image, private brand attitudes, and private brands¡¦ purchasing intentions. The main research findings are listed as following: 1.When consumers¡¦ value consciousness is higher, their attitude for private brand would also be better. 2.Consumers who have more interests in promotion would have better attitude toward private label, especially the consumers who prefer price discount, their acceptance for private brands will be higher than those who prefer non-price promotion ( ex. Giftaway). 3.Consumers who have better store image will have better attitude toward private barnds accordingly. 4.Consumers¡¦ age has significant differences on the attitude of private brands. To sum it up, when consumers are elder, then they will have worse attitude toward private brands. 5.There are high consistence between attitude and purchasing intention.

O objetivo deste estudo é investigar, de forma comparativa entre as categorias alimento e limpeza doméstica, os antecedentes da intenção do consumidor comprar marcas próprias, bem como analisar os efeitos da diferença nos níveis de risco percebido entre essas duas categorias de produtos na formação da intenção de compra. Para o alcance desse objetivo construiu-se um modelo com base em revisões da literatura sobre marcas próprias, bem como sobre risco percebido, imagem da loja, imagem da marca própria e atitudes, construtos identificados como os principais preditores da intenção de compra. O marco teórico permitiu a construção de hipóteses acerca dos principais relacionamentos existentes entre esses construtos no contexto de marcas próprias. A seguir foi realizada uma pesquisa empírica com o objetivo de testar tais hipóteses, utilizando um questionário auto-administrado elaborado com escalas já validadas na literatura. Esse levantamento de campo (survey) coletou opiniões de uma amostra não probabilística de 1.938 clientes de supermercados, composta por pessoas de ambos os gêneros e provenientes de 26 Estados do Brasil e do Distrito Federal, com predominância do Estado de São Paulo. Os resultados obtidos por meio de modelagem de equações estruturais utilizando a ferramenta Smart PLS demonstram que há relacionamentos significativos entre o risco percebido e a imagem da marca própria; entre a imagem da loja e imagem da marca própria; entre a imagem da marca própria e a atitude; e entre a atitude e a intenção de compra, validando as hipóteses de trabalho. O estudo também conclui que o risco percebido e a imagem da loja são fortes preditores da imagem da marca própria e da atitude a qual, por sua vez, é uma forte preditora da intenção de compra. Por fim, os resultados sugerem que a imagem da loja exerce maior influência na imagem da marca própria quando se trata da categoria alimentos, identificada como de menor risco percebido. Já na categoria limpeza doméstica, a cadeia mais relevante de antecedentes à intenção de compra por parte dos consumidores passa pelas relações entre risco percebido, imagem da marca e atitude frente a marcas próprias. Essas conclusões sugerem diferenças de intensidade, senão em natureza, nas relações entre os antecedentes psicológicos à intenção de compra do consumidor quando são consideradas categorias que se diferenciam no risco percebido pelo cliente, contribuindo para uma melhor compreensão teórica do fenômeno e sugerindo implicações gerenciais na adoção de estratégias de marketing por parte dos varejistas detentores de marcas próprias. / This study aims to investigate the antecedents of consumer´s intention to purchase private brands and analyze the effects of different perceived risk levels in intention formation by comparing food and house cleaning product categories. To attain to such goal a model was developed based on literature reviews about private brands, as well as perceived risk, store image, brand image, and attitudes, constructs identified as the main predictors for purchase intention. The theoretical framework allowed the construction of hypotheses about the key relationships among the constructs in the context of private brands. A survey was then designed and executed in order to test the hypotheses. A self-administered questionnaire was build with validated scales found in marketing literature. The empirical study collected opinions from a non-probabilistic sample of 1,938 private brands supermarket shoppers, comprising persons of both genders and from all 26 Brazilian states and the Federal District, predominating residents in the state of São Paulo. Results obtained by Structural Equation Modeling using Smart PLS suggest there are significant relationships between perceived risk and private brand image; between store image and brand image; between private brand image and attitude; and between attitude and purchase intention, validating the proposed hypotheses. The study also concluded that perceived risk and store image are strong predictors for private brand image and attitude which, in turn, is a strong predictor for purchase intention. Finally, results suggest that store image has more influence on private brand image when food products are the focused category as consumers present lower perceived risk toward it. For house cleaning products, the most relevant antecedents for consumer´s purchase intention form a chain of relations from perceived risk, brand image and attitude towards private labels. These findings suggest differences in intensity, if not in nature, on the relations among consumer´s psychological antecedents for purchase intention when categories that differ on perceived risk are considered. Such findings contribute to a better theoretical understanding of the phenomenon and suggest managerial implications for marketing strategies to retailers who hold private brands.

O objetivo deste estudo é investigar, de forma comparativa entre as categorias alimento e limpeza doméstica, os antecedentes da intenção do consumidor comprar marcas próprias, bem como analisar os efeitos da diferença nos níveis de risco percebido entre essas duas categorias de produtos na formação da intenção de compra. Para o alcance desse objetivo construiu-se um modelo com base em revisões da literatura sobre marcas próprias, bem como sobre risco percebido, imagem da loja, imagem da marca própria e atitudes, construtos identificados como os principais preditores da intenção de compra. O marco teórico permitiu a construção de hipóteses acerca dos principais relacionamentos existentes entre esses construtos no contexto de marcas próprias. A seguir foi realizada uma pesquisa empírica com o objetivo de testar tais hipóteses, utilizando um questionário auto-administrado elaborado com escalas já validadas na literatura. Esse levantamento de campo (survey) coletou opiniões de uma amostra não probabilística de 1.938 clientes de supermercados, composta por pessoas de ambos os gêneros e provenientes de 26 Estados do Brasil e do Distrito Federal, com predominância do Estado de São Paulo. Os resultados obtidos por meio de modelagem de equações estruturais utilizando a ferramenta Smart PLS demonstram que há relacionamentos significativos entre o risco percebido e a imagem da marca própria; entre a imagem da loja e imagem da marca própria; entre a imagem da marca própria e a atitude; e entre a atitude e a intenção de compra, validando as hipóteses de trabalho. O estudo também conclui que o risco percebido e a imagem da loja são fortes preditores da imagem da marca própria e da atitude a qual, por sua vez, é uma forte preditora da intenção de compra. Por fim, os resultados sugerem que a imagem da loja exerce maior influência na imagem da marca própria quando se trata da categoria alimentos, identificada como de menor risco percebido. Já na categoria limpeza doméstica, a cadeia mais relevante de antecedentes à intenção de compra por parte dos consumidores passa pelas relações entre risco percebido, imagem da marca e atitude frente a marcas próprias. Essas conclusões sugerem diferenças de intensidade, senão em natureza, nas relações entre os antecedentes psicológicos à intenção de compra do consumidor quando são consideradas categorias que se diferenciam no risco percebido pelo cliente, contribuindo para uma melhor compreensão teórica do fenômeno e sugerindo implicações gerenciais na adoção de estratégias de marketing por parte dos varejistas detentores de marcas próprias. / This study aims to investigate the antecedents of consumer´s intention to purchase private brands and analyze the effects of different perceived risk levels in intention formation by comparing food and house cleaning product categories. To attain to such goal a model was developed based on literature reviews about private brands, as well as perceived risk, store image, brand image, and attitudes, constructs identified as the main predictors for purchase intention. The theoretical framework allowed the construction of hypotheses about the key relationships among the constructs in the context of private brands. A survey was then designed and executed in order to test the hypotheses. A self-administered questionnaire was build with validated scales found in marketing literature. The empirical study collected opinions from a non-probabilistic sample of 1,938 private brands supermarket shoppers, comprising persons of both genders and from all 26 Brazilian states and the Federal District, predominating residents in the state of São Paulo. Results obtained by Structural Equation Modeling using Smart PLS suggest there are significant relationships between perceived risk and private brand image; between store image and brand image; between private brand image and attitude; and between attitude and purchase intention, validating the proposed hypotheses. The study also concluded that perceived risk and store image are strong predictors for private brand image and attitude which, in turn, is a strong predictor for purchase intention. Finally, results suggest that store image has more influence on private brand image when food products are the focused category as consumers present lower perceived risk toward it. For house cleaning products, the most relevant antecedents for consumer´s purchase intention form a chain of relations from perceived risk, brand image and attitude towards private labels. These findings suggest differences in intensity, if not in nature, on the relations among consumer´s psychological antecedents for purchase intention when categories that differ on perceived risk are considered. Such findings contribute to a better theoretical understanding of the phenomenon and suggest managerial implications for marketing strategies to retailers who hold private brands.

Introduction: The importance of brands and the competition between private and national brands in different food categories increased in recent years. According to literature, except for packaging and price, there is virtually no difference between the contents of food products in the majority of private and national brands. Private brands are usually cheaper than national brands. Previous research indicated consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products to differ between various products and in different regions. Objective: The aim of this study was thus to determine the relationship between consumers’ brand preferences for different food products, in relation to their demographics and psychographics in a South African context. Setting: A mall intercept, interviewer administered questionnaire was used as a quantitative method in this study in Potchefstroom in a South African context. Consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products in different product categories were explored, using preference, psychographics and demographical questions simultaneously. Results: Respondents in this study preferred to purchase national brands in all products categories except for cooking oil. Considering eight psychographic factors that were extracted by exploratory factor analysis, two factors could be associated with positive reactions, while neutral reactions were evident for six factors. Respondents being indecisive on the majority of factors could be due to the fact that national brands were preferred for most products by respondents in the present study. Conclusions: Although brand preference depended on demographics and psychographics in previous research, the present study did not find significant relationships with psychographics when different products were used. Although a combination of demographic factors (mainly gender, education level, home language and employment status) could be useful in determining brand preference when used with specific products, home language and education level seem to be the most important factors. Therefore, brand preference depended on specific demographics for each product, while psychographic factors did not play a significant role. This implied that brand preference research should be product and region specific using specific demographic variables. / Thesis (M. Consumer Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Introduction: The importance of brands and the competition between private and national brands in different food categories increased in recent years. According to literature, except for packaging and price, there is virtually no difference between the contents of food products in the majority of private and national brands. Private brands are usually cheaper than national brands. Previous research indicated consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products to differ between various products and in different regions. Objective: The aim of this study was thus to determine the relationship between consumers’ brand preferences for different food products, in relation to their demographics and psychographics in a South African context. Setting: A mall intercept, interviewer administered questionnaire was used as a quantitative method in this study in Potchefstroom in a South African context. Consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products in different product categories were explored, using preference, psychographics and demographical questions simultaneously. Results: Respondents in this study preferred to purchase national brands in all products categories except for cooking oil. Considering eight psychographic factors that were extracted by exploratory factor analysis, two factors could be associated with positive reactions, while neutral reactions were evident for six factors. Respondents being indecisive on the majority of factors could be due to the fact that national brands were preferred for most products by respondents in the present study. Conclusions: Although brand preference depended on demographics and psychographics in previous research, the present study did not find significant relationships with psychographics when different products were used. Although a combination of demographic factors (mainly gender, education level, home language and employment status) could be useful in determining brand preference when used with specific products, home language and education level seem to be the most important factors. Therefore, brand preference depended on specific demographics for each product, while psychographic factors did not play a significant role. This implied that brand preference research should be product and region specific using specific demographic variables. / Thesis (M. Consumer Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

以消費者為基礎的零售市場趨勢變化，重新定義了品牌對於消費者的意涵，使製造商品牌和零售商自有品牌權益的戰爭有了新的趨勢。新的零售概念開始萌芽後，零售商自有品牌逐漸成長，而通常付出代價的是製造商。 本研究試圖由消費者、製造商、與零售商三個不同構面，探討對於品牌權益的認知差異。以消費者為基礎的零售商自有品牌權益認知的問卷調查資料，也依據抽樣樣本的性別、年齡、月收入、教育程度與職業別進行分析，以期能檢視不同消費族群，對於零售商自有品牌主觀認知的差異不同。 研究發現，台灣的消費者對於零售商自有品牌的品牌識別比例高達97.87%；但是對於品牌意涵的回應比例卻低於25%。盡管高達83.45%的消費者認為零售商自有品牌，在未來的發展會有增加的趨勢；但對於高價零售商自有品牌的接受性還是較低。 性別對於零售商自有品牌的主觀認知影響不大。但是年齡差異的影響則明顯不同。雖然三十歲以上的消費者，主觀的認知到零售商自有品牌的產品創新，不過對照其他不同年齡組群，也只有年齡較長的消費者(四十一歲以上的族群)，基於對於製造商品牌心理的連結與行為的忠誠度，未來還是選擇不會購買更多的零售商自有品牌產品。顯然的，零售商自有品牌產品的品牌權益，對於四十一歲以上的理性族群消費者的吸引力仍舊不足；反倒是，商店本身的品牌權益，對於各年齡層的消費者購買行為，都具有正面的效果。 同樣的，消費者的教育程度與自有品牌創新的滿意度成反比。而不同於一般人主觀的認知，高收入的族群對自有品牌產品的滿意度，已經實質的高過其他中低收入族群。 對於零售商自有品牌的趨勢而言，個案中的零售便利商店，都認為自有品牌會是零售商未來的發展方向與趨勢。不過，零售便利商店對於自有品牌創新差異化模式，會因不同零售商而有很大的差異。7-ELEVEN的差異化，是在價值上的創新，價格因素還是主要考量；全家便利商店則認為產品的獨特與創新上的差異，會是吸引消費者購買的重要因素。因此，全家對於自有品牌的品牌權益與價格溢酬，自然會有比較樂觀的看法。而單就自有品牌商品營業額的成長幅度而言，7-ELEVEN和全家便利商店去年分別高達110%與130%。 食品製造商由於主觀認知上的落差，因而忽視來自零售商品牌的威脅所導致的危機。這種狀況或許可透過不同通路系統多樣性的代工模式，進而分散來自零售便利商的威脅與風險。品牌產品製造與自有品牌代工兼容並進的雙軌發展模式，會是製造商生存的策略之一。 零售通路的自有品牌產品，已經得到消費者主觀認知上的注意與肯定。聰明的消費行為，也讓消費者逐漸轉向價值創新的零售商自有品牌，而捨棄了製造商品牌產品。零售商自品牌產品，不再只是市場的低價替代性產品。創新價值的零售商自有品牌產品的品牌權益，賺取了原本屬於製造商品牌的價格溢酬。 低價不是便宜，而是刪除了不合理的價格溢酬。雖然價格是品牌發展的重點，可是價值更是關鍵。零售商自品牌產品『平價奢華』的價值創新，會是感動消費者的價值主張。 消費者已經清楚知覺到零售商自有品牌所提供的品牌價值；零售商也知道自己擁有的通路優勢與經濟的規模，並以產品價值創新與獨特的差異性，積極零售商自有品牌權益的革命。製造商必須注意消費者對於零售商自有品牌權益的認知、與正面自有品牌回應的趨勢，以及零售商的積極品牌打造的企圖心；清楚品牌競爭的事實，以維護製造商產品的品牌權益。 製造商品牌並沒有消失，只是品牌權益已不再是製造商所獨有。零售商自有品牌，會是製造商未來必須面對的最大挑戰。 / Recent change in the consumer-based retail market trend has redefined consumers’ perception of the meaning of brand. War over brand equity between the manufacturer and the retailer has evolved to another level. As retailers’ private brand (PB) takes on a new concept, it is taking a toll at the manufacturer’s expense. This research tries to identify the perception of private brand from three different perspectives: the manufacturer, the retailer, and the consumer. The consumer-based retailers’ PB equity survey data was analyzed for the difference in subjective perspective based on respondents’ gender, age, personal income, level of education, and occupation. The result shows that 97.87% of the respondents recognize the brand identity of retailers’ PB. However, only 25% of the respondents are aware of the brand meaning and actually purchase PB products on a regular basis. 83.45% of the respondents answered positively on the future development of PB, but the majority still can’t accept the notion that retail prices for PB are higher than the manufacturers’ brand (MB). Gender does not seem to be a factor in the consumer’s perception of PB. However, age does have a major influence on the acceptance of the PB for consumers. Although older respondents, 30-years old or older, recognize the competitiveness of PB products for their innovative capability, with the emotional connection and the brand loyalty toward MB, the group of 41-year-olds or older expressed reluctance to purchase more PB products in the future. Obviously brand equity of PB products has yet to develop brand relationship with older consumers to allure them into the shops. On the contrary, brand equity of the retailer shops itself does have a positive influence on the sales of PB products. Consumers’ educational level has a negative effect on the degree of satisfaction in PB product innovation. Furthermore, contrary to general perception, consumers with higher income level registered a higher preference for the PB product as well. Both of the two convenience stores (CVS) in this case study agree with the upward trend of the PB. In fact, in 2009, 7-ELEVEN and FamilyMart each grew an impressive 110% and 130% respectively in sales revenue of their PB products. However, both CVS have very different innovation models in strategic thinking and positioning their stores. 7-ELEVEN focuses more on value innovation and uses pricing as differentiation tactic in the market. On the other hand, FamilyMart puts product innovation and uniqueness as its priority to attract consumers. Manufacturers who choose to ignore the threat of PB may subject themselves to the high risk presented by the burgeoning of such products. One possible solution may be through OEM/ODM of PB for various retailers in order to diversify and minimize possible threats and risks. Production of manufacturers’ own brand and retailers’ private brand in a two-track manufacturing system may well be a strategic way to survive for manufacturers. Consumers are aware of and have recognized the existence of PB in retailer stores. The idea of smart shopping has its own right on the value innovation of PB for the consumer. PB no longer represents cheap products in the retail market. As PB positions itself with higher retail prices, it will possess the brand equity and earn the price premium at the toll of MB. Low pricing does not imply cheap quality but the elimination of excessively unreasonable price premium of a product. Pricing is important to brand development, but value should be the key in establishing the perception of brand quality. Affordable luxury is a value innovation of the PB that creates an irresistible value proposition to touch the heart of consumers. Consumers have clearly perceived the brand value of the PB. Retailers are also aware of the advantages they have with the channel, the scale and scope of economy; as a result, they are vigorously preparing for the battle to redefine the meaning of brand. It is time for manufacturers to change their mindset and face the inconvenient truth of the competition over brand equity. Manufacturers’ brand still has its own right, but the brand equity is no longer monopolized by them. Retailers’ PB has certainly become the strongest competition that manufacturers will need to confront now and in the near future.

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