Les estimacions de danys ambientals en cadenes de processos necessiten l'avaluació d'impactes ambientals en dues perspectives: orientades cap a cadenes de processos i orientades localment. Per a ambdues perspectives s'han desenvolupat eines específiques d'avaluació: l'Avaluació del Cicle de Vida (ACV o LCA) i l'Avaluació del Risc Ambiental (ERA). L'ACV és una eina, bastant nova, orientada cap a cadenes de processos, per avaluar el perfil ambiental dels productes, enfocada cap al cicle de vida complet d'aquests. A la fase de l'Avaluació de l'Impacte del Cicle de Vida (LCIA) s'avaluen els resultats del Inventari del Cicle de Vida (LCI) d'un sistema de producte, per entendre millor el seu significat ambiental. L'ERA és una eina per avaluar el risc de substàncies químiques específiques. A l'anàlisi d'exposició, s'avalua el risc d'un procés en un lloc concret. L'Anàlisi de Vies d'Impacte (IPA) és un mètode semblant que s'ha desenvolupat per a l'avaluació dels danys ambientals en termes de paràmetres d'impactes físics, com per exemple els casos de càncer. A l'IPA normalment aquests paràmetres es converteixen en costs externs. No obstant això, els individus podrien preferir altres esquemes de valoració.Els productes es fabriquen en una cadena ramificada de processos. Existeixen mètodes específics per a l'avaluació ambiental de productes que no s'haurien d'emprar directement per a l'avaluació d'un número de processos industrials amb una unitat funcional comuna, ja que el nivell de sofisticació en l'avaluació pot ser més elevat per a cadenes de processos industrials amb un número limitat de processos inclosos que per a productes complexos. S'han realitzat pocs esforços, per explorar sistemàticament les incerteses inherents, interfases i tipus de possibilitats d'integració i comunicació dels mètodes d'avaluació ambientals citats, orientats per un costat a cadenes de processos i per l'altre els orientats localment, en el cas de cadenes de processos industrials. Per això l'objectiu d'aquesta tesi, és trobar un compromís adequat entre els mètodes d'avaluació d'impacte ambiental, orientats a cadenes de processos i els orientats localment i, convertir les estimacions de danys ambientals en resultats significatius, com els costs ambientals.La tesi ofereix un algoritme matemàtic i un esquema que permet la diferenciació espaial a diferents nivells de detall i proposa una integració de l'ACV, l'IPA i els costs ambientals. La metodologia establerta "Estimacions de Danys Ambientals per a Cadenes de Processos Industrials" posa els punts mitjos i els punts finals en un marc comú. S'aplica i se segueix desenvolupant un mètode per a l'avaluació d'impactes depenents del lloc com una manera per aconseguir un compromís entre les avaluacions del dany específic de lloc i els indicadors potencials del cicle de vida. El mètode utilitza classes genèriques d'impacte que corresponen a diverses distribucions de receptors i condicions de dispersió basades en un raonament estadístic. Una part del desenvolupament de la metodologia consisteix en l'anàlisi de les incerteses en el LCI i l'IPA per la simulació de Monte Carlo. Aquesta aplicació paral.lela permet mostrar que les incerteses de l'inventari són menys importants que les dels danys.Els mètodes presentats i la metodologia desenvolupada s'han aplicat amb èxit per diferents camins al cas pràctic d'incineració de residus i, especialment, al seu impacte sobre la salut humana. La comparació dels resultats derivats, mitjançant indicadors d'impacte de punt final, amb els obtinguts per a l'indicador de punt mitjà, indica que per la situació del cas pràctic l'indicador de punt mitjà desestima l'impacte ambiental dels processos de transport. S'ha establert la base per a la creació d'una nova generació de models de gestió integrada de residus que inclou l'optimització de la ubicació de plantes de tractament de residus i de la difusió de les rutes de transports corresponents. / Las estimaciones de daños ambientales en cadenas de procesos necesitan la evaluación de impactos ambientales en dos perspectivas: orientadas hacia cadenas de procesos y orientadas localmente. Para las dos perspectivas se han desarrollado herramientas específicas de evaluación: el Análisis del Ciclo de Vida (ACV o LCA) y la Evaluación del Riesgo Ambiental (ERA). El ACV es una herramienta, bastante nueva, orientada hacia cadenas de procesos, para evaluar el perfil ambiental de los productos, enfocada hacia el ciclo de vida completo de éstos. En la fase de la Evaluación del Impacto del Ciclo de Vida (LCIA) se evalúan los resultados del Inventario del Ciclo de Vida (LCI) de un sistema de producto, para entender mejor su significado ambiental. La ERA es una herramienta para evaluar el riesgo de substancias químicas específicas. En el análisis de exposición, se evalúa el riesgo de un proceso en un lugar concreto. El Análisis de Vías de Impacto (IPA) es un método similar que se ha desarrollado para la evaluación de los daños ambientales en forma de parámetros de impactos físicos, como casos de cáncer. En el IPA normalmente estos parámetros están convertidos en costes externos. Los productos se fabrican en una cadena ramificada de procesos. Existen métodos específicos para la evaluación ambiental de productos que no se deberían aplicar directamente para la evaluación de un número de procesos industriales con una unidad funcional comuna, ya que el nivel de sofisticación en la evaluación puede ser más elevado para cadenas de procesos industriales con un número limitado de procesos incluidos que para productos complejos. Se han realizado pocos esfuerzos, para explorar sistemáticamente las incertidumbres inherentes y los tipos de posibilidades de integración y comunicación de los métodos de evaluación ambiental citados, orientados de un lado a cadenas de procesos y del otro lado orientados localmente, en el caso de cadenas de procesos industriales. Por eso el objetivo de esta tesis, es: encontrar un compromiso adecuado entre los métodos de evaluación de impacto ambiental, orientados a cadenas de procesos y los orientados localmente y, convertir las estimaciones de daños ambientales en resultados significativos, como los costes ambientales.La tesis ofrece un algoritmo matemático y un esquema que permite la diferenciación espacial a diferentes niveles de detalle y propone una integración del ACV, IPA y costes ambientales. La metodología establecida "Estimaciones de Daños Ambientales para Cadenas de Procesos Industriales" pone los puntos medios y los puntos finales en un marco común. Se continúa el desarrollo de un método para la evaluación de impactos dependientes del lugar como una manera para conseguir un compromiso entre les evaluaciones del daño específico de lugar y los indicadores potenciales del ciclo de vida. El método utiliza clases genéricas de impacto que corresponden a diversas distribuciones de receptores y condiciones de dispersión basadas en un razonamiento estadístico. Como parte del desarrollo de metodología, se analizan las incertidumbres en el LCI y IPA mediante la simulación de Monte Carlo.Los métodos presentados y la metodología desarrollada se han aplicado con éxito por diferentes caminos al caso práctico de incineración de residuos y especialmente a su impacto sobre la salud humana. La comparación de los resultados derivados mediante indicadores de impacto de punto final con los obtenidos para el indicador de punto medio, indica que para la situación del caso práctico el indicador de punto medio desestima el impacto ambiental de los procesos de transporte. Se ha establecido la base para la creación de una nueva generación de modelos de gestión integrada de residuos que incluye la optimización de la ubicación de plantas de tratamiento y de las rutas de transportes correspondientes. / Environmental damage estimations in industrial process chains need the assessment of environmental impacts in two perspectives: process chain-orientated and site-orientated. For both perspectives environmental assessment tools exist: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA). LCA is a fairly new chain-orientated tool to evaluate the environmental performance of products focussing on its entire life cycle. In the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase a product system's Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) results are evaluated to better understand their environmental relevance. ERA is a tool to assess the risk of chemicals. In the exposure analysis the risk of a process at one location is evaluated. The Impact Pathway Analysis (IPA) is a method related to ERA that has been developed for the assessment of environmental damages by the terms of physical impact parameters like cancer cases. Usually in the IPA the physical impact parameters are converted into external environmental costs, but depending on personal values individuals may prefer other existing weighting schemes to express different types of environmental damages.Products are manufactured in a ramified chain of processes. While specific tools exist for the environmental assessment of products and processes, this is not the case for the assessment of a number of industrial processes with a common functional unit such as end-of-life cycles. However, the level of sophistication in the assessment can be much higher for industrial process chains with a quite limited number of processes involved than for the life cycles of complex products. Only little efforts have been made so far to systematically explore the inherent uncertainties, interfaces and possibilities for integration and communication of the chain-orientated and site-orientated environmental assessment methods in the case of such industrial process chains. Therefore, the objective of this thesis is to find an adequate trade-off between process chain-orientated and site-orientated environmental impact assessment and to convert environmental damage estimates in meaningful results like environmental costs.The thesis proposes a mathematical framework and a flowchart that allows spatial differentiation at different levels of detail based on the integration of LCA, ERA and IPA with environmental costs. This methodology called "Environmental Damage Estimations in Industrial Process Chains" puts the conventional potential midpoint LCIA indicators in a common framework with damage endpoint IPA indicators. As a trade-off between site-specific damage assessments and potential life cycle indicators a currently existing site-dependent impact assessment is further developed and integrated in the methodology proposed. The site-dependent impact assessment method is based on statistical reasoning and uses representative generic impact classes corresponding to receptor distribution and dispersion conditions. As part of the methodology development, uncertainties in the LCI and IPA are analysed using Monte Carlo Simulation. This parallel analysis permits to show that the uncertainties in the inventory analysis are less important than those in the damage assessment.The presented methods and the developed methodology were successfully applied in several ways to a case study on waste incineration with a special focus on human health. In a comparison of the results obtained by endpoint indicators with midpoint indicators it was found that for the situation of the case study apparently the midpoint indicators underestimate the environmental impact of the transport processes. A new generation of integrated waste management tools seems to be feasible that takes into account the setting of the waste treatment installations and the sites affected by the transport routes, allowing in this way an overall environmental optimisation

Additive manufacturing (AM) has shown itself to be beneficial in many application areas, including product design and manufacture, medical models and prosthetics, architectural modelling and artistic endeavours. For some of these applications, coupling AM with reverse engineering (RE) enables the utilisation of data from existing 3D shapes. This thesis describes the application of AM and RE within sculpture manufacture, in order to optimise the process chains for sculpture reproduction and relic conservation and restoration. This area poses particular problems since the original artefacts can often be fragile and inaccessible, and the finishing required on the AM replicas is both complex and varied. Several case studies within both literature and practical projects are presented, which cover essential knowledge of producing large scale sculptures from an original models as well as a wide range of artefact shapes and downstream finishing techniques. The combination of digital technologies and traditional art requires interdisciplinary knowledge across engineering and fine art. Also, definitions and requirements (e.g. 'accuracy'), can be applied as both engineering and artistic terms when specifications and trade-offs are being considered. The thesis discusses the feasibility for using these technologies across domains, and explores the potential for developing new market opportunities for AM. It presents and analyses a number of case study projects undertaken by the author with a view to developing cost and time models for various processes used. These models have then been used to develop a series of "process maps", which enable users of AM in this area to decide upon the optimum process route to follow, under various circumstances. The maps were validated and user feedback obtained through the execution of two further sculpture manufacturing projects. The thesis finishes with conclusions about the feasibility of the approach, its constraints, the pros and cons of adopting AM in this area and recommendations for future research.

Die Mehrkörpersimulation (MKS) kommt in immer mehr Bereichen zum Einsatz. Bis vor einigen Jahren war das Thema fast ausschließlich im Automobilbereich wichtig. Heute wird der Ansatz in fast allen Bereichen der Technik, in dem „Bewegungsabläufe“ eine Rolle spielen, eingesetzt. Im Gegensatz zur Finite Elemente (FE)-Methode, für die eine detaillierte Bauteiltopologie mit einer Vielzahl von Elementen nötig ist, können mit MKS-Systemen selbst komplexe mechanische Systeme mit einer relativ geringen Anzahl an Freiheitsgraden abgebildet werden. Das Programm Adams hat diese Entwicklung maßgeblich mit gestaltet. Neben den Erweiterungen im Bereich der Solver und anderer mathematischer Formulierungen war immer die einfache Benutzerführung, die Integration von weiteren Simulationstechnologien und auch die Entwicklung von Spezialanwendungen ein wichtiges Thema der Entwicklung. Im Rahmen dieses Vortrages wird der Einsatz von Adams an Hand von Beispielen demonstriert. Weiterer Schwerpunkt ist die Erweiterung der Modelle durch Berücksichtigung der elastischen Materialeigenschaften einzelner Bauteile. Die Kopplung zur Lebensdauerberechnung an Hand von Beispielen schließt den Beitrag ab.

No / A novel process chain for serial production of polymer-based devices incorporating both micro- and nano-scale features is proposed. The process chain is enabled by the use of Zr-based bulk metallic glasses (BMG) to achieve the necessary level of compatibility and complementarity between its component technologies. It integrates two different technologies, namely laser ablation and focused ion beam (FIB) milling for micro-structuring and sub-micron patterning, respectively, thus to fabricate inserts incorporating different length scale functional features. Two alternative laser sources, namely nano-second (NS) and pico-second (PS) lasers, were considered as potential candidates for the first step in this master-making process chain. The capabilities of the component technologies together with some issues associated with their integration were studied. To validate the replication performance of the produced masters, a Zr-based BMG insert was used to produce a small batch of micro-fluidic devices by micro-injection moulding. Furthermore, an experimental study was also carried out to determine whether it would be possible by NS laser ablation to structure the Zr-based BMG workpieces with a high surface integrity whilst retaining the BMG’s non-crystalline morphology. Collectively, it was demonstrated that the proposed process chain could be a viable fabrication route for mass production of polymer devices incorporating different length scale features.

Die Mehrkörpersimulation (MKS) kommt in immer mehr Bereichen zum Einsatz. Bis vor einigen Jahren war das Thema fast ausschließlich im Automobilbereich wichtig. Heute wird der Ansatz in fast allen Bereichen der Technik, in dem „Bewegungsabläufe“ eine Rolle spielen, eingesetzt. Im Gegensatz zur Finite Elemente (FE)-Methode, für die eine detaillierte Bauteiltopologie mit einer Vielzahl von Elementen nötig ist, können mit MKS-Systemen selbst komplexe mechanische Systeme mit einer relativ geringen Anzahl an Freiheitsgraden abgebildet werden. Das Programm Adams hat diese Entwicklung maßgeblich mit gestaltet. Neben den Erweiterungen im Bereich der Solver und anderer mathematischer Formulierungen war immer die einfache Benutzerführung, die Integration von weiteren Simulationstechnologien und auch die Entwicklung von Spezialanwendungen ein wichtiges Thema der Entwicklung. Im Rahmen dieses Vortrages wird der Einsatz von Adams an Hand von Beispielen demonstriert. Weiterer Schwerpunkt ist die Erweiterung der Modelle durch Berücksichtigung der elastischen Materialeigenschaften einzelner Bauteile. Die Kopplung zur Lebensdauerberechnung an Hand von Beispielen schließt den Beitrag ab.

Yes / A novel process chain for serial production of polymer-based devices incorporating both micro- and nano-scale features is proposed. The process chain is enabled by the use of Zr-based bulk metallic glasses (BMG) to achieve the necessary level of compatibility and complementarity between its component technologies. It integrates two different technologies, namely laser ablation and focused ion beam (FIB) milling for micro-structuring and sub-micron patterning, respectively, thus to fabricate inserts incorporating different length scale functional features. Two alternative laser sources, namely nano-second (NS) and pico-second (PS) lasers, were considered as potential candidates for the first step in this master-making process chain. The capabilities of the component technologies together with some issues associated with their integration were studied. To validate the replication performance of the produced masters, a Zr-based BMG insert was used to produce a small batch of micro-fluidic devices by micro-injection moulding. Furthermore, an experimental study was also carried out to determine whether it would be possible by NS laser ablation to structure the Zr-based BMG workpieces with a high surface integrity whilst retaining the BMG's non-crystalline morphology. Collectively, it was demonstrated that the proposed process chain could be a viable fabrication route for mass production of polymer devices incorporating different length scale features.

Steigende Anforderungen an die Genauigkeit und Aussagekraft numerischer Berechnungen sowie neue Werkstoffe und Prozesse erfordern zunehmend technologische Erweiterungen und Entwicklungen innerhalb der Softwarelösungen. Neben der Ausweitung von Möglichkeiten in der Material- und Prozessmodellierung sowie der genaueren Abbildung physikalischer Prozesse, stehen dabei zunehmend Prozessketten im Fokus. Die Historie, welche Halbzeuge oder Bauteile bereits vom Urformprozess an mit sich führen, bestimmt dabei zu einem erheblichen Grad die Eigenschaften und damit auch mögliche Verfahrensgrenzen in allen nachfolgenden Prozessstufen. Dadurch wird deutlich, dass eine Betrachtung ebendieser vorangegangenen Schritte einen deutlichen Einfluss auf das Bauteilverhalten in den Folgeprozessen hat, wodurch die Aussagekraft entkoppelter Simulationen ab einem bestimmten Detailgrad dahingehend begrenzt bleibt. Der damit steigenden Komplexität von Berechnungsproblemen stehen auf der anderen Seite Forderungen einer immer leichter und intuitiver werdenden Bedienung von Simulationssoftware entgegen. Hexagons Smart Shop Softwarelösungen nehmen dabei das Problem der Prozessketten- simulation von der Umformung bis zur Assemblierung in den Fokus. Neben der Berechnung und Evaluierung von komplexen metallischen Baugruppen sowie der nahtlosen Integration physischer Messtechnik, spielt dabei die Bedienbarkeit eine bedeutende Rolle. Das Ziel ist mögliche Probleme in der Produktentwicklung zeitnah zu detektieren und zu adressieren, um physische Prototypen auf ein Minimum reduzieren zu können (Abbildung 1). Am Beispiel eines Karosseriebauteils erfolgt innerhalb des Beitrags die Darstellung eines Workflows zur Detektion möglicher Fertigungsprobleme in der Produktentwicklungsphase sowie die Beleuchtung weiterer Anwendungsfälle. / Increasing demands towards the accuracy and significance of numerical simulations as well as new materials and processes require technological enhancements and developments within the software solutions. Beyond extending possibilities for material- and process modeling as well as more accurate prediction of physical behavior, process chains get into the spotlight more and more. The history which parts already inherit as from the casting stage on determines the attributes and therefore also possible process limits in all following production stages. This illustrates that the analysis of this preceding process steps has a significant impact on the part behavior in all subsequent steps, which is why the meaningfulness of decoupled simulations is limited at a certain demand for detail. The increasing complexity of the simulation problems on one hand are facing demands for higher user friendliness and more intuitive control of the simulation software on the other hand. Hexagons Smart Shop software solutions have their focus on the process chain simulation from forming to assembly. Beyond the calculation and evaluation of complex metallic assemblies and the seamless integration of metrology devices, usability plays a major role. The aim hereby is to detect and address possible issue within the product development as early as possible and therefore reduce physical prototypes to a minimum. With the example of a body in white part, it is shown how a workflow for the detection of possible manufacturing challenges within the product development as well as other alternative use cases can look like.

During the manufacturing planning, multiple variants of process chains for the manufacturing of a product to be developed are generated by engineers. In order to select an optimal variant, multiple decision criteria specifying technical, ecological and economical properties of the process chains as well as multiple assessments of different domain experts have to be taken into account. The contribution of this article is a two-step approach that provides a multi-criteria multi-expert assessment of manufacturing process chains supporting the selection of an optimal process chain. A web-based software tool that implements the multi-criteria assessment of process chains is also presented.

During the manufacturing planning, multiple variants of process chains for the manufacturing of a product to be developed are generated by engineers. In order to select an optimal variant, multiple decision criteria specifying technical, ecological and economical properties of the process chains as well as multiple assessments of different domain experts have to be taken into account. The contribution of this article is a two-step approach that provides a multi-criteria multi-expert assessment of manufacturing process chains supporting the selection of an optimal process chain. A web-based software tool that implements the multi-criteria assessment of process chains is also presented.