J1 (L-melphalanyl-L-p-fluorophenylalanyl ethyl ester) is a dipeptide derivative of the alkylating agent melphalan with increased cytotoxicity. In this thesis the preclinical pharmacology of J1 has been characterized. Our results show that J1 rapidly enters the cells, where melphalan is released by hydrolysis. The maximum concentration (Cmax) of melphalan was detected 15 min after exposure to J1 in human cancer cell lines. In comparison, melphalan exposure resulted in a 10-fold lower Cmax that was shifted to later time points. J1 induced more DNA damage and apoptosis than melphalan. The cytotoxic activity and release of melphalan from J1 were inhibited by preincubating cells with the aminopeptidase inhibitor bestatin. In accordance with these results, we showed that J1 is a substrate for aminopeptidase N (APN), which may result in increased tumor selectivity. J1 effectively inhibited cell growth in a set of neuroblastoma cell lines. Athymic mice carrying neuroblastoma xenografts were treated either with equimolar doses of melphalan or J1. J1 inhibited the tumor growth more effectively than melphalan and the untreated control, and was associated with higher caspase-3 activation, fewer proliferating tumor cells and decreased mean vascular density. J1 and melphalan showed similar activity profiles when tested in 176 primary tumor cell cultures from patients, but J1 exhibited 50- to 100-fold higher potency. The difference was greater in some diagnoses (e.g. breast cancer, NHL and AML), and was exceptionally large in some breast cancer samples with aggressive phenotypes. A combination screening of J1 and standard chemotherapeutics yielded mostly additive interactions, except for etoposide which induced synergy in all tested cell lines. In conclusion, the melphalan prodrug J1 is effectively transported into the cells, where aminopeptidases (for example APN) catalyze the formation of melphalan. J1 shows promising preclinical potential in the diagnoses neuroblastoma and breast cancer.

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Phosphorus is an element that is essential for life, and is used in the synthesis of many proteins, carbohydrates and deoxyribonucleic acids. Phosphorus often exists in the form of phosphate when found in the biological systems. Clinical development of possible pharmaceutical agents have used phosphorus in the form of phosphonates to increase the metabolic stability of the potential drug. Some of these phosphonates target the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway (IBP). The IBP plays an important role in the synthesis of cholesterol and in other aspects of cellular metabolism. The enzymes of the IBP have been the target of possible therapeutic agents for treatment of multiple diseases, including cancer. Often these phosphonic acids are masked by an enzymatically cleavable group in order to increase their bioavailability and activity. Phosphoantigens are small organo-phosphorus molecules that stimulate the expansion of Vγ9Vδ2 T-cells which detect and eliminate infected cells. Both natural and non-natural phosphoantigens have exhibited a wide range of effective concentrations (EC50) for γδ T-cells. The most potent phosphoantigen is E-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP), which is an intermediate in the bacterial IBP. Nanomolar concentration of this compound stimulate T-cell proliferation. While HMBPP is highly potent, it undergoes rapid decomposition when injected into the blood stream. Synthesis of more stable phosphonate analogues can show better activity for expansion of the γδ T-cell population. Increased activity was observed in T-cell assays after masking the phosphonic acids to increase the bioavailability of the active phosphoantigen. Because some phosphoantigen showed strong activity with masked phosphonic acids, families of phosphonate analogues now have been prepared. Most use selenium dioxide mediated oxidation to incorporate the terminal alcohol and ester exchange to provide prodrugs to study the structure-activity-relationships. The biological activity of these compounds has been investigated and new phosphoantigens were shown to be strong activators of γδ T-cells. Furthermore, the phosphoantigens have been shown to bind to the protein butyrophilin 3A1 (BTN3A1) at an intracellular domain. A second family of phosphoantigen derivatives, masked by a new pH fluorescent cell-cleavable ester, were prepared and tested by our collaborators to explore the compounds’ activity and to investigate the mechanism of action. Finally, a new class of phosphorus compounds alkyl 1, 1, 1-trisphosphonates has been studied to obtain salts that might be biologically active. Trisphosphonates contain a unique arrangement of phosphonate groups on a single carbon and could provide charge states unseen in the more traditional bisphosphonates. A general route to asymmetric trisphosphonates through a step-wise phosphorylation of each phosphonate has been developed. Selective phosphonate ester cleavage would allow for the ability to obtain a multitude of charge states and possible biological activity.

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No / Whereas protease inhibitors have been developed successfully against hypertension and viral infections, they have failed thus far as cancer drugs. With advances in cancer profiling we now better understand that the tumor “degradome” (i.e. the repertoire of proteases and their natural inhibitors and interaction partners) forms a complex network in which specific nodes determine the global outcome of manipulation of the protease web. However, knowing which proteases are active in the tumor micro-environment, we may tackle cancers with the use of Protease-Activated Prodrugs (PAPs). Here we exemplify this concept for metallo-, cysteine and serine proteases. PAPs not only exist as small molecular adducts, containing a cleavable substrate sequence and a latent prodrug, they are presently also manufactured as various types of nanoparticles. Although the emphasis of this review is on PAPs for treatment, it is clear that protease activatable probes and nanoparticles are also powerful tools for imaging purposes, including tumor diagnosis and staging, as well as visualization of tumor imaging during microsurgical resections.

yes / The archetypal prodrug of the imidazotetrazine class is the anticancer agent temozolomide (TMZ). The prodrug activation kinetics of TMZ show an unusual pH dependence: it is stable in acid and rapidly hydrolyses in alkali (Denny, B.J., et al. Biochemistry 1994, 33, 9045–9051). The incipient drug MTIC has the opposite properties—relatively stable in alkali but unstable in acid. In this study, the mechanism of prodrug activation was probed in greater detail to determine whether the reactions are specific or general acid or base catalysed. Three prodrugs and drugs were investigated, TMZ, MTIC and the novel dimeric imidazotetrazine EA27. Hydrolysis in a range of citrate-phosphate buffers (pH 8.0, 7.4, 4.0) was measured by UV spectrophotometry. Reaction of TMZ and MTIC obeyed single-phase, pseudo-first order kinetics (Figure 1). EA27 was more complex, showing biphasic but approximately pseudo-first order kinetics, Figure. General acid or base catalysis indicates that protonation or deprotonation is the rate-limiting step (rls). In biological milieu, the nature and concentration of other acidic or basic solutes may affect the prodrug activation reaction. In contrast, specific acid or base catalysis indicates that protonation or deprotonation occurs before the rls, so catalysis depends only on the local concentration of hydroxide or hydronium ion (i.e., pH) so the reaction kinetics are not expected to change appreciably in a biological medium.

Affinity proteins constitute an important category of cancer therapeutics. Owing to properties such as high target affinity and selectivity, therapeutic proteins offer more targeted therapy than small molecule drugs. The target molecules are typically proteins that are overexpressed on the surface of tumour cells, such as membrane-bound receptors. However, these surface proteins are usually expressed in normal tissues as well, resulting in on-target off-tumour toxicity. Proteins with a higher tissue selectivity are thus needed. Here, this has been addressed by developing prodrug proteins dependent on cancer-specific proteases for activation. The prodrugs were composed of a target-binding affibody (active domain) connected to a masking affibody (masking domain) by a peptide linker including a protease substrate. The target of the prodrugs developed in this project was the HER2 receptor, which is overexpressed in several cancer types. Three prodrug candidates were developed, produced and characterised based on their ability to be activated by their respective protease. The hypothesis that the prodrugs could be activated and thus bind to HER2 in cancer cells was tested using biosensor assays, as well as preliminary cancer cell assays. One of the three candidates showed strong potential to be used as a targeted therapy for cancer treatment in the future. / Affinitetsproteiner utgör en viktig kategori av cancerläkemedel. Jämfört med småmolekylära läkemedel är affinitetsproteiner mer riktade, då de har högre affinitet och selektivitet än små molekyler. Oftast utgörs det molekylära målet av ett protein som överuttrycks på ytan av cancerceller, så som membranbundna receptorer. Dessvärre uttrycks de flesta cancerspecifika proteiner i mindre mängd även i normal vävnad. Detta leder till oönskade effekter som kan ge upphov till biverkningar. I syfte att utveckla mer vävnadsspecifika läkemedel har här affibody-baserade “prodrugs”, beroende av cancerspecifika proteaser för aktivering, tagits fram. Prodrug-proteinerna i detta projekt är riktade mot HER2-receptorn, som är överuttryckt i flera typer av cancer. Tre kandidater togs fram och utvärderades med avseende på deras förmåga att aktiveras av sina respektive proteaser. För att testa hypotesen att kandidaterna kunde binda till HER2 på cancerceller efter proteasaktivering användes biosensoranalys samt experiment med cancerceller. En av kandidaterna visade stark potential att kunna användas som ett riktat läkemedel mot cancer i framtiden.

Lopinavir (LPV) is a potent protease inhibitor specific for HIV-1. However, LPV has poor placental penetration due to substrate activity for efflux transporter by P-glycoprotein (P-gp). Since fatty acid transporters are highly expressed in the placenta during pregnancy, we designed fatty acid ester prodrug of lopinavir as substrates of fatty acid transporter in order to improve their uptake into placenta. Seven dicarboxylic acid esters of lopinavir have been made in our lab. The structures were characterized by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, LC-MS/MS, HRMS, IR and melting points. After making the prodrugs, an LC-MS/MS method with high specificity and sensitivity, as well as simultaneous quantitative analyses of lopinavir and SLPV, GLPV and DLPV in the BeWo cells methanol extraction was established and validated. The uptake of prodrugs (SLPV, GLPV and DLPV) in the BeWo cells was then determined. GLPV has the highest uptake followed by SLPV and then DLPV. The results suggest that the carbon length of the promoiety may have a positive relationship with the uptake. Ideal prodrugs should be stable before they reach placenta and can be hydrolyzed in the placenta and/or in fetal plasma. We did a series of stability and hydrolysis studies in human tissue fractions. The results showed that GLPV and SLPV were very stable in HIC, HLC and human adult plasma. DLPV was stable in HIC, HLC, but can be hydrolyzed in human adult plasma. GLPV and SLPV cannot be hydrolyzed in either human placenta or fetal plasma, while DLPV can be hydrolyzed in both human placenta and fetal plasma. Anti-HIV activities study of prodrugs was also conducted. The results showed that the EC50 of three prodrugs (GLPV, SLPV and DLPV) are 0.86 μM, 0.84 μM and 0.05 μM, which are much lower than 50 μM (The active drug criteria for this assay). It suggests that prodrugs have apparently anti-HIV activity. DLPV has comparable apparent anti-HIV activity to LPV (<0.02 μM). After incubation with CEM-SS cells for 6 days, almost half of DLPV was hydrolyzed into LPV. Therefore, the high anti-HIV potent of DLPV may be due to the anti-HIV activity of generated LPV.

The need for chemoselective bond formation within complex biological systems has driven much research in chemical biology and chemical medicine and has allowed control over the structure and biological properties of a range of chemical entities. Reactions that are highly biocompatible, selective and occur at low concentration are classified as being bioorthogonal. Although bioorthogonal reactions have been successfully applied to bioconjugation and imaging in living systems, only a few examples exist of bioorthogonal reactions being utilised for the activation of prodrugs. The tetrazine mediated inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reaction is characterized by excellent reaction rates and high biocompatibility in both in vitro and in vivo applications. To date, this chemistry has found only limited application in prodrug activation or drug release strategies. Herein, a series of tetrazine-trigger systems are reported in which an active drug is liberated from its inactive form upon triggering with tetrazine. It is shown that the release of encapsulated and conjugated drugs from polymeric nanoparticles can be triggered by tetrazines providing an on-demand release within biological systems. In a totally new approach that fully complies with the principle of bioorthogonality by avoiding the generation of any by-products, tetrazine was utilised as a prodrug scaffold leading to symbiotic and traceless dyadic prodrug activation. The simultaneous formation of two active drugs (here the anticancer drug camptothecin and a known micro RNA inhibitor) was confirmed and validated within a biological environment. The use of tetrazines as a trigger to activate or release an active drug will open new directions in the field of chemical biology/medicine.