O presente estudo buscou compreender os efeitos do uso de incentivos financeiros na produtividade dos beneficiários do Programa de Produtividade em Pesquisa (PPP) da Universidade Federal do Tocantins (UFT), sob a ótica da Economia Comportamental. Teve como objetivos, verificar se através dos incentivos, os indivíduos aumentaram ou não a produtividade em pesquisa. Buscou-se também, identificar quais as características individuais impactaram mais a propensão dos indivíduos a ingressarem no programa, bem como, analisar se os resultados obtidos convergiram ou divergiram da teoria da Economia Comportamental. Para alcançar o intento, foi realizada análise documental (AD), onde foram analisados os currículos lattes dos 125 integrantes da amostra. Em seguida, os dados foram sistematizados e a pontuação atribuída a cada indivíduo foi tabulada. Com os resultados obtidos na AD, utilizou-se os modelos econométricos Propensity Score Matching (PSM) e Diferença em Diferenças (DD) para aferir o efeito do tratamento. Como resultados, verificou-se através do modelo PSM que o efeito do tratamento no período da intervenção foi positivo. Já quando este resultado foi comparado com o período pré-intervenção, através da aplicação do modelo DD, verificou-se que o efeito do tratamento foi negativo. Constatou-se, porém, que o efeito negativo apontado pelo modelo DD decorreu da aproximação de desempenho dos integrantes do grupo controle (aumento de 84,69% na produtividade média do grupo), em relação aos integrantes do grupo de tratamento, e não pela diminuição do desempenho dos tratados, tendo em vista que, houve aumento de 13,68% na produtividade média do grupo, entre um período e outro. Ou seja, durante o período de vigência do programa, houve aumento da média de produtividade nos dois grupos analisados. No geral, os resultados alcançados convergiram com os pressupostos teóricos da Economia Comportamental. / The present study sought to understand the effects of the use of financial incentives on the productivity of beneficiaries of the Research Productivity Program (PPP) of the Federal University of Tocantins from the perspective of Behavioral Economics. The objective was to verify if through the incentives the individuals increased or not the productivity. It was also sought to identify which individual characteristics impacted more the individuals' propensity to enter the program as well as to analyze if the results obtained converged or diverged from the behavioral theory. To reach the intent, a documentary analysis (AD) was carried out, where the lattes resume of the 125 sample members were analyzed. Then the data were systematized and the score attributed to each individual was tabulated. With the results obtained in the AD, the econometric models Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and Difference in Differences (DD) were used to gauge the treatment effect. As results, it was verified through the PSM model that the treatment effect in the intervention period was positive. When this result was compared with the pre-intervention period through the application of the DD model, it was verified that the effect of the treatment was negative. It was observed, however, that the negative effect indicated by the DD model resulted from the approximation of the performance of the control group (increase of 84,69% in the average productivity of the group) in relation to the members of the treatment group, since there was an increase of 13,68% in the average of the treated individuals. That is, during the period of validity of the program, there was an increase in the average productivity of the two groups analyzed. In general, the results achieved converged with the theoretical assumptions of Behavioral Economics.

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L’objectif de cette thèse est de conceptualiser, à partir de l’exploitation des données de remboursement de soins de l’Assurance Maladie, les différentes trajectoires de recours aux soins relatives à la prise en charge d’une pathologie chronique (asthme), et d’étudier les déterminants de ces trajectoires du point de vue du profil et du comportement subséquent du prescripteur de soins. L’étude de la relation entre le comportement prescriptif et la trajectoire de soins est appréhendée par des techniques de modélisation et d’analyses multivariées. L’objectif sous-jacent est d’évaluer, d’un point de vue médico-économique, l’impact de la typologie des prescripteurs (caractéristiques des offreurs de soins) sur les différentes trajectoires de soins suivies par les patients atteints de la pathologie définie supra. Les caractéristiques susceptibles d’identifier une typologie de prescripteur correspondent aux variables influant sur le comportement prescriptif, au sens large, du médecin (âge, sexe, durée d’exercice, type d’exercice, etc.). La question principale de la thèse est celle de l’effet régulateur de l’incitation économique, instaurée par le parcours de soins coordonnés (réforme de l’Assurance Maladie, août 2004), sur les trajectoires de soins, réellement observées, de patients atteints de pathologies chroniques. Les corollaires sont : Le déremboursement des actes hors parcours de soins coordonnés peut-il avoir un impact significatif sur la trajectoire empirique de prise en charge du patient ? Le profil du prescripteur d’actes médicaux a-t-il, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, un effet sur le respect ou non de la trajectoire de soins référentielle admise par le parcours de soins coordonnés ? Quels sont les déterminants principaux du non respect de cette trajectoire référentielle, du point de vue de l’analyse des caractéristiques des couples « médecin – patient» ? / The objective of this thesis is to conceptualize, starting from the exploitation of the refunding data of cares from the Sickness insurance, the various trajectories of cares recourses introduced by chronic diseases as asthma, and to study their determinants by analysing the profile and the subsequent behavior of the general practitioner. The study of the relation between the prescriptive behavior and the trajectory of cares is carried out by different multivariate analyses. The other objective is to evaluate, from a pharmacoeconomic point of view, the impact of the general practitioner characteristics on the various trajectories of cares followed by the patients with chronic diseases. The characteristics likely to identify a typology of practitioners correspond to the variables influencing the prescriptive behavior (age, sex, duration of exercise, type of exercise, etc). The principal question of the thesis is that of the regulating effect of the economic incentive, rested on the coordinated care pathway (reform of the Sickness insurance, August 2004), on the trajectories of cares, really observed by the chronic patients. The corollaries are: Does the no-reimbursement of some medical acts, not considered in the coordinated care pathway, have a significant impact on the empirical recourse of the patient? Does the profile of the general practitioner have an effect on the respect or not of the allowed trajectory of cares classified by the French reform? Which are the principal determinants of disregarding this referential trajectory, by notably analysing the “practitioner - patient” characteristics?

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of honors education to student success by comparing honors-eligible community college students who met requirements to academically matched peers who opted out of honors participation. Honors program participation was defined as completing 12 or more credit hours of honors-level course work. The population for this study included 452 honors-eligible participants with 95 honors participants (HPs) and 357 non-participants (NPs) from a community college in Tennessee. The sampling frame was generated using a five-year participation window from 2008 through 2013. Propensity score matching alleviated the threat to validity for self-selection bias by controlling for confounding variables such as high school GPA, dual-enrollment participation, ACT score, declared major, community college GPA upon first term of eligibility, parental income, parental education, gender, and age. Major findings of the study were: honors program participants (a) earned a significantly higher numerical final course grade in Composition II, a first-year writing course; (b) earned significantly higher cumulative GPAs the second semester after honors eligibility; (c) earned significantly higher cumulative GPAs upon completion; (d) were significantly more likely to graduate. Conclusions generated from the data analyses indicate that honors education benefits community college students and provide empirical support for increased investment in community college honors education, especially for high-achieving students experiencing poverty. Low-income students were defined as those students receiving the maximum federal Pell Grant award provided to undergraduate students with financial need. Within the study sample, it was determined that 50% of NPs met the low-income threshold whereas 47% of HPs were identified as low-income. These participation rates suggest that more low-income high-achieving students who could substantially benefit from participating in honors are participating less. Further empirical research studies and policy levers should identify ways to increase honors participation for low-income, high-achieving students.

Objective: The study assesses the impact of dual enrollment participation on remediation and completion for traditional first time, full-time freshmen at a community college in Northeast Tennessee. Method: This study began with the full population of 1,232 students who enrolled between 2008 and 2012 at a community college in northeast Tennessee the fall semester after finishing high school. The population was required to have American College Testing (ACT) scores, completely fill out the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), enroll full-time as a degree-seeking student, and complete the first fall semester. Propensity score matching was utilized to eliminate self-selection bias and enable parametric comparisons using optimal matching of dual enrollment participants and non-participants while controlling for a range of covariates. Results: The analyses showed that community college students who participated in dual enrollment were (a) 9% or nearly 3.4 times less likely to take remediation, (b) 26% or nearly 2.5 times more likely to graduate in 2 years, and (c) 28% or nearly 1.5 times more likely to graduate in 3 years. Contributions: This study contributes to the literature showing that dual enrollment reduces remediation rates and assists in timely completions for community college students. Policy recommendations are to increase equitable participation, normalize dual enrollment for students academically able to do college coursework, align state terminology with the nation, and improve data for future research.

Enrollment in degree-granting postsecondary institutions in the U.S. is increasing, as are the numbers of students entering academically underprepared. Students in remedial mathematics represent the largest percentage of total enrollment in remedial courses, and national statistics indicate that less than half of these students pass all of the remedial math courses in which they enroll. In response to the low pass rates, numerous studies have been conducted into the use of alternative modes of instruction to increase passing rates. Despite myriad studies into course redesign, passing rates have seen no large-scale improvement. Lacking is a thorough investigation into preexisting differences between students who do and do not take remedial math. My study examined the effect of taking remedial math courses in college on degree attainment and college GPA using a subsample of the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002. This nonexperimental study examined preexisting differences between students who did and did not take remedial math. The study incorporated propensity score matching, a statistical analysis not commonly used in educational research, to create comparison groups of matched students using multiple covariate measures. Missing value analyses and multiple imputation procedures were also incorporated as methods for identifying and handling missing data. Analyses were conducted on both matched and unmatched groups, as well as on 12 multiply imputed data sets. Binary logistic regression analyses showed that preexisting differences between students on academic, nonacademic, and non-cognitive measures significantly predicted remedial math-taking in college. Binary logistic regression analyses also indicated that students who did not take remedial math courses in college were 1.5 times more likely to earn a degree than students who took remedial math. Linear regression analyses showed that taking remedial math had a significant negative effect on mean college GPA. Students who did not take remedial math had a higher mean GPA than students who did take remedial math. These results were consistent across unmatched groups, matched groups, and all 12 multiply imputed data sets.

<p>This thesis consists of a summary and four papers. The first two concerns health care and sickness absence, and the last two pharmaceutical costs and prices.</p><p>Paper [I] presents an economic federation model which resembles the situation in, for example, Sweden. In the model the state governments provide health care, the fed-eral government provides a sickness benefit and both levels tax labor income. The re-sults show that the states can have either an incentive to under- or over-provide health care. The federal government can, by introducing an intergovernmental transfer, in-duce the state governments to provide the socially optimal amount of health care.</p><p>In Paper [II] the effect of aggregated public health care expenditure on absence from work due to sickness or disability was estimated. The analysis was based on data from a panel of the Swedish municipalities for the period 1993-2004. Public health care expenditure was found to have no statistically significant effect on absence and the standard errors were small enough to rule out all but a minimal effect. The result held when separate estimations were conducted for women and men, and for absence due to sickness and disability.</p><p>The purpose of Paper [III] was to study the effects of the introduction of fixed pharmaceutical budgets for two health centers in Västerbotten, Sweden. Estimation results using propensity score matching methods show that there are no systematic differences for either price or quantity per prescription between health centers using fixed and open-ended budgets. The analysis was based on individual prescription data from the two health centers and a control group both before and after the introduction of fixed budgets.</p><p>In Paper [IV] the introduction of the Swedish substitution reform in October 2002 was used as a natural experiment to examine the effects of increased consumer infor-mation on pharmaceutical prices. Using monthly data on individual pharmaceutical prices, the average reduction of prices due to the reform was estimated to four percent for both brand name and generic pharmaceuticals during the first four years after the reform. The results also show that the price adjustment was not instant.</p>

In this thesis, we explore two different approaches to causal inferences. The traditional approach models the theoretical relationship between the outcome variables and their explanatory variables, i.e., the science, at the same time as the systematic differences between treated and control subjects are modeled, i.e., the assignment mechanism. The alternative approach, based on Rubin's Causal Model (RCM), makes it possible to model the science and the assignment mechanism separately in a two-step procedure. In the first step, no outcome variables are used when the assignment mechanism is modeled, the treated students are matched with similar control students using this mechanism, and the models for the science are determined. Outcome variables are only used in the second step when these pre-specified models for the science are fitted. In the first paper, we use the traditional approach to evaluate whether a husband is more prone to quit smoking when his wife quits smoking than he would have been had his wife not quit. We find evidence that this is the case, but that our analysis must rely on restrictive assumptions. In the subsequent two papers, we use the alternative RCM approach to evaluate if a Harvard freshman who does not smoke (observed potential outcome) is more prone to start smoking when he shares a suite with at least one smoker, than he would have been had he shared a suite with only smokers (missing potential outcomes). We do not find evidence that this is the case, and the small and insignificant treatment effect is robust against various assumptions that we make regarding covariate adjustments and missing potential outcomes. In contrast, we do find such evidence when we use the traditional approach previously used in the literature to evaluate peer effects relating to smoking, but the treatment effect is not robust against the assumptions that we make regarding covariate adjustments. These contrasting results in the two latter papers allow us to conclude that there are a number of advantages with the alternative RCM approach over the traditional approaches previously used to evaluate peer effects relating to smoking. Because the RCM does not use the outcome variables when the assignment mechanism is modeled, it can be re-fit repeatedly without biasing the models for the science. The assignment mechanism can then often be modeled to fit the data better and, because the models for the science can consequently better control for the assignment mechanism, they can be fit with less restrictive assumptions. Moreover, because the RCM models two distinct processes separately, the implications of the assumptions that are made on these processes become more transparent. Finally, the RCM can derive the two potential outcomes needed for drawing causal inferences explicitly, which enhances the transparency of the assumptions made with regard to the missing potential outcomes. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2006 S. 1-13: sammanfattning, s. [15]-161: 4 uppsatser

This thesis consists of a summary and four papers. The first two concerns health care and sickness absence, and the last two pharmaceutical costs and prices. Paper [I] presents an economic federation model which resembles the situation in, for example, Sweden. In the model the state governments provide health care, the fed-eral government provides a sickness benefit and both levels tax labor income. The re-sults show that the states can have either an incentive to under- or over-provide health care. The federal government can, by introducing an intergovernmental transfer, in-duce the state governments to provide the socially optimal amount of health care. In Paper [II] the effect of aggregated public health care expenditure on absence from work due to sickness or disability was estimated. The analysis was based on data from a panel of the Swedish municipalities for the period 1993-2004. Public health care expenditure was found to have no statistically significant effect on absence and the standard errors were small enough to rule out all but a minimal effect. The result held when separate estimations were conducted for women and men, and for absence due to sickness and disability. The purpose of Paper [III] was to study the effects of the introduction of fixed pharmaceutical budgets for two health centers in Västerbotten, Sweden. Estimation results using propensity score matching methods show that there are no systematic differences for either price or quantity per prescription between health centers using fixed and open-ended budgets. The analysis was based on individual prescription data from the two health centers and a control group both before and after the introduction of fixed budgets. In Paper [IV] the introduction of the Swedish substitution reform in October 2002 was used as a natural experiment to examine the effects of increased consumer infor-mation on pharmaceutical prices. Using monthly data on individual pharmaceutical prices, the average reduction of prices due to the reform was estimated to four percent for both brand name and generic pharmaceuticals during the first four years after the reform. The results also show that the price adjustment was not instant.

The central research question is the extent to which gifted programming affects student academic outcomes of gifted as compared to not-gifted students and how this differs by race/ethnicity and/or poverty status. Since the identification of elementary school students as gifted is not random, propensity score matching is used to remove this bias in the estimates of the effects. A matched sample of North Carolina middle school students based on individual level data of both gifted and not-gifted students of varied racial/ethnic groups and income levels is used for this analysis. This enables a comparison of sixth, seventh, and eighth grade student achievement to determine the extent to which participating in gifted programming differentiates effects by race/ethnicity and poverty status. I show the additional test score gain, if any, from being in gifted programming compared to students not participating in gifted programs. Variations in gifted program effects across race/ethnicity and income are assessed. This research adds empirical evidence to the more qualitatively focused gifted debate by analyzing differences in student outcomes between gifted and not-gifted students in North Carolina. Since black and lower income students are less likely to participate in gifted programs, they disproportionately encounter less experienced teachers, lower expectations, and fewer resources. The extent to which these additional learning supports translate to differences in student outcomes are analyzed.