The origins of aggression warrant extensive investigation given its substantial cost to both victims and perpetrators. However, only recently have researchers begun to understand the prevalence and harm associated with relational aggression, which is behaviour intended to damage another person’s feelings, relationships, or social status, such as social exclusion or spreading rumors. Even with this heightened research interest in relational aggression there is a paucity of studies conducted with children prior to age four, the developmental period in which relational aggression begins to emerge. In this dissertation we ascertain what unique lags in development or blossoming capacities coincide with the emergence of both physical and relational aggression during early childhood. In Study 1, we examined differential predictors (sex, age, prosocial behaviour, internalizing problems, and impulsivity) of teacher-rated aggression style (physically aggressive, relationally aggressive, or combined physically and relationally aggressive) among preschoolers (N = 429; M = 41.29, SD = 8.14) using multinomial logistic regression. Being a boy and being higher on impulsivity were both substantial risk factors for use of physical aggression (alone or combined with relational aggression). In Study 2, we explored longitudinal associations between preschoolers’ (N = 126; Mage = 39.15 months, SD = 6.67) assessed language (receptive and expressive vocabulary), parent-rated working memory, and teacher-rated aggression (physical and relational) across one year using an autoregressive cross-lagged panel model. Longitudinally, physical aggression showed stability and both better working memory and previously higher physical aggression predicted higher relational aggression over one year. There were no longitudinal links between language and aggression when simultaneously accounting for working memory in the model, emphasizing the need to account for working memory in this association in future research. In Study 3, using four, separate multivariate multiple regressions, we examined the linear and interactive effects between negative emotionality and several aspects of self-regulation (inhibitory, emotional [soothability], attentional [attention span], and metacognitive [working memory] control) in the prediction of preschoolers’ (N = 198; M = 33.65 months, SD = 5.02) physical and relational aggression. Poorer inhibitory and metacognitive control were associated with higher physical aggression regardless of trait negative emotionality, highlighting the importance of self-regulation rather than emotional reactivity in models of physical aggression. Poorer inhibitory control was also linked to higher relational aggression. Also, negative emotionality was most strongly linked to relational aggression at higher levels of emotional control or attentional control. In summary, the results of the present dissertation support a skill-deficit model of preschool physical aggression (alone or in combination with relational aggression) and both a skill-deficit and developmental advancement model for preschool relational aggression.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is not only a health crisis, but also shatters the socialand economic lives through regulations and social restrictions. As seen duringSARS 2002-2003, measures like social restrictions can impact behaviournegatively, leading to discrimination, stigmatisation and xenophobia. There is alack of studies on antisocial behaviour and crime during health crises, such aspandemics. Related studies on disaster and crime gave mixed results, with somesuggesting an increase in prosocial rather than antisocial behaviour. Using acriminological perspective, German news media from January 1, 2020 untilMarch 31, 2020 were analysed. These media sources were the tabloid Bild andtwo main elite newspapers, Süddeutsche Zeitung and Frankfurter AllgemeineZeitung. Analyses were conducted quantitatively based on frequencies, means andword counts. Additionally, a qualitative media content analysis regarding events,behaviour and story tone was undertaken. The aim was to reveal indications ofreported behavioural changes. For a complete overview, both antisocial andprosocial behaviours were included. Results indicate that antisocial behaviour,such as ignoring of governmental advice and rules, and discriminatory behaviours,as well as crimes like fraud became more prominent over time than prosocial andhelping behaviour. This study shows only a fragment of the situation in Germany,but highlights the importance of continuous assessments of human behaviourduring dynamic and critical times.

With modern communication technology advancements, activist expression has become more common on social media platforms. Especially susceptible to these expressions is the millennial generation, whose lives are greatly permeated by media technology. This thesis aims to explore in what ways the social media platform Facebook inuences millennials’ motivation to engage in substantial prosocial behaviours that are intended to benet other people or society as a whole. Through mixed-method research design, participants’ attitudes towards Facebook as a platform for activism and its inuence on prosocial motivational aspects, was explored. Results indicated that previous habits of supportive engagement and the cost of the supportive action inuenced how the likeliness and motivation to engage in substantial supportive actions was aected by Facebook interaction. More precisely, higher levels of previous engagement, as well as engagement in costly, prosocial actions contributed to an increased motivation to engage further in such actions. Furthermore, social and contemporary aspects showed to play a large part for participants’ motivation to engage in costly and substantial prosocial actions.‌ / I samband med dagens kommunikationsteknologiska framsteg har aktivistiska uttryck blivit allt vanligare på plattformar för sociala medier. Särskilt mottagliga för sådana uttryck är millenniegenerationen, från engelskans ’milliennials’, vars liv till stor del genomsyras av medieteknik. Denna studie har för avsikt att utforska hur den sociala plattformen Facebook påverkar motivationen för individer tillhörande millenniegenerationen att engagera sig i konkreta prosociala beteenden som har som syfte att gynna andra människor eller samhället som helhet. Genom kombinerade kvalitativa och kvantitativa forskningsmetoder utforskades deltagarnas attityder gentemot Facebook som en plattform för aktivism, och dess inverkan på prosocialt motiverande aspekter. Resultaten visade att tidigare vana av engagemang samt kostnaden av den välgörande handlingen påverkades av Facebook-interaktion. Närmare bestämt, högre nivåer av tidigare engagemang samt engagemang i kostsamma, prosocial handlingar bidrog till en ökad motivation till fortsatt engagemang i sådana handlingar. Vidare påvisades sociala och samtida aspekter spela en viktig roll för deltagarnas motiatt engagera sig i kostsamma och konkreta prosociala handlingar.

Yes / This study adopts a theory of reasoned action approach to understand consumers’ mask wearing when shopping in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. We investigated mask wearing while shopping as a prosocial consumption behaviour whereby self-oriented benefits and others-oriented benefits are added as proposed drivers of attitudes and perceived social norms. Empirical evidence from a survey in France and Germany confirms a strong effect of social norms on mask-wearing intentions. Moreover, altruistic benefits predict mask-wearing intentions, with attitude and subjective norms as mediators. In contrast, self-expression benefits of mask wearing only influence perceived social norms and not attitudes; this effect differs between the countries. Our findings guide scholars, policy makers and practitioners to steer consumers’ mask wearing as a prosocial behaviour. / Received support from central internationalization funds of Universität Hamburg.

The purpose of this study was to explore the factors that contribute to prosocial behaviour in maltreated adolescent females living in a children’s home in the Tshwane-metropole, Gauteng, South Africa. The age of the participants varied between 14 and 18 years. The study was approved by the Internal Research Panel and Faculty Board of the North-West University. Approval was also obtained from the children's home where the study was conducted. The researcher worked from a positive psychology paradigm which guided the researcher to focus on the participants' strengths and positive aspects which contributed to their display of prosocial behaviour. A literature study was conducted to provide the researcher with a clearer understanding of the meaning of the research problem. The literature study focused on the development of prosocial behaviour and adolescent development within the context of child maltreatment. The researcher utilised a qualitative research approach, which enabled her to describe and understand the participants' behaviour. As methodology, the researcher utilised an intrinsic case study design and participants were selected based on purposive sampling. Data collection relied on two semi-structured interviews per participant which provided the opportunity for participants to share their thoughts, feelings and perceptions. Thematic data analysis was performed, using Creswell’s spiral of data analysis. During data analysis, regarding the factors surrounding the prosocial behaviour of maltreated adolescent females living in residential care, two main contributing themes were identified, namely: * Internal factors * External factors Internal factors illuminate the importance of (1) a moral identity that guides behaviour according to internalised moral values; (2) an internal locus of control which attests to the participants’ view of themselves as active role-players and not mere victims of circumstances, and (3) cognitive skills demonstrated in the capacity to engage in critical thinking. External factors emphasise the importance of (1) attachment figures and positive role-models that model moral values and (2) a supportive, nurturing environment. Internal and external factors do not operate in isolation, but there is rather a definite interplay between these factors, such as attachment figures in the environment (external factor) who model moral values which the child incorporates into her identity in the attainment of a moral identity (internal factor). Strategies to broaden support networks for children should receive attention within the child welfare context, as they could, among other factors, promote positive outcomes for youth in residential care. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The purpose of this study was to explore the factors that contribute to prosocial behaviour in maltreated adolescent females living in a children’s home in the Tshwane-metropole, Gauteng, South Africa. The age of the participants varied between 14 and 18 years. The study was approved by the Internal Research Panel and Faculty Board of the North-West University. Approval was also obtained from the children's home where the study was conducted. The researcher worked from a positive psychology paradigm which guided the researcher to focus on the participants' strengths and positive aspects which contributed to their display of prosocial behaviour. A literature study was conducted to provide the researcher with a clearer understanding of the meaning of the research problem. The literature study focused on the development of prosocial behaviour and adolescent development within the context of child maltreatment. The researcher utilised a qualitative research approach, which enabled her to describe and understand the participants' behaviour. As methodology, the researcher utilised an intrinsic case study design and participants were selected based on purposive sampling. Data collection relied on two semi-structured interviews per participant which provided the opportunity for participants to share their thoughts, feelings and perceptions. Thematic data analysis was performed, using Creswell’s spiral of data analysis. During data analysis, regarding the factors surrounding the prosocial behaviour of maltreated adolescent females living in residential care, two main contributing themes were identified, namely: * Internal factors * External factors Internal factors illuminate the importance of (1) a moral identity that guides behaviour according to internalised moral values; (2) an internal locus of control which attests to the participants’ view of themselves as active role-players and not mere victims of circumstances, and (3) cognitive skills demonstrated in the capacity to engage in critical thinking. External factors emphasise the importance of (1) attachment figures and positive role-models that model moral values and (2) a supportive, nurturing environment. Internal and external factors do not operate in isolation, but there is rather a definite interplay between these factors, such as attachment figures in the environment (external factor) who model moral values which the child incorporates into her identity in the attainment of a moral identity (internal factor). Strategies to broaden support networks for children should receive attention within the child welfare context, as they could, among other factors, promote positive outcomes for youth in residential care. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Babies and toddlers are known to help others in the second year of life, by doing simple things like picking up dropped toys. However, researchers now believe helping develops earlier, in the first year of life. After reviewing what is known about early helping, my thesis examined how babies begin to help others by first helping their mothers (Study 1), and, for the first time, babies' requests for help from others, and how their requests are related to their other helping experiences (Study 2). The two studies presented here look at how babies interact with their caregivers, naturalistically and in structured game-like activities, from the time that they are five months old until they are ten months old. Study 1 used video-chat with 40 babies and their mothers to see the connection between how mothers and their babies completed activities together naturalistically, and how babies performed in simple helping games, as well as how babies' helping in these activities changed over time. This study found that mothers used gestures and phrases with their babies that were like the ones used by researchers in experiments, that younger babies were more likely to help their moms in cooperation type activities than in problem solving type activities, and that babies were more likely to help in problem solving type activities when they were older. Study 2 looked at 34 different pairs of babies and mothers to identify how babies and their caregivers ask for help from each other. This study found that babies ask for help from their mothers and use similar types of communication as their mothers. This research gave information to help us understand babies' helping and how it develops through both mother-child interactions and babies' own actions. This research is new and gives exciting new information to other researchers that are interested in learning about how babies help others and how they ask for help from a very young age.

The thesis deals with the issue of blood donation and it has a total of fifteen parts. The first chapter describes theoretical knowledges of motivational factors, altruism and economic view on it. It is followed by informations about the history of blood donation and treatments with blood, anatomy of blood and blood groups. The section of blood donation provides general informations about conditions of donation, resulting benefits, risks for donor and recipient and commercial collection of plasma. The thesis focuses especially on the blood market in the Czech Republic in terms of legislation, supply of blood, its evaluation and ultimately safety of blood. At the end there are published results of the questionnaire survey. Its aim was to find out how the public is looking at blood donation, its promotion, safety and reasons to donate or not to donate blood.

Knowledge on how to design trustworthy virtual characters are of importance when these are becoming more and more common interaction partners. In this study, a closer look at the suggested relationship from previous research between valence and trustworthiness is investigated by constructing virtual characters with different non-verbal behaviours and letting participants rate them in a pre-study. A second question of how perception of trustworthiness is based for virtual characters is investigated by letting participants play a trust game with life-sized virtual characters on a big 4k-screen. Results indicated that valence is not necessarily a factor influencing trustworthiness and that positive valence together with mutual gaze is not enough to provide a clearly trustworthy virtual character. Results also indicated that perception of trustworthiness is not based solely on a virtual character's previous decisions of trust in a longer interaction but also on its non-verbal behaviour. The outcome of this study will help when constructing virtual characters in different scenarios, especially when the goal is to make them as trustworthy as possible. The study also gives insight into tools and software that can be used when creating virtual characters and setting up scenarios of trust.

Motivation of volunteers presents one of the specific areas of volunteerism research. The paper brings main theories and thoughts about motivation of volunteers and evaluation their relevancy for Czech settings. Futher the paper presents analyse of already realized partial researchs (above all in students' papers) and proposal of framing theoretical conception for research of motivation in Czech Republic.