In the lung, epithelial cell migration plays a key role in both physiological and pathophysiological conditions. When the respiratory epithelium is injured, the epithelial lining in the respiratory system can be seriously damaged. Spreading and migrating of the surviving cells neighboring a wound are essential for airway epithelial repair. When the repair process is affected, aberrant remodeling may occur, which is important in the pathogenesis of lung diseases. However, in comparison with other cellular and molecular functions in the respiratory system, our understanding on lung epithelial cell migration and invasion is limited. To gain insight into the molecular mechanisms that govern these cellular processes, I asked whether normal (non-cancerous) human airway epithelial cells can form podosomes, a cellular structure discovered from cancer and mesenchymal cells that controls cell migration and invasion. I found that phorbol-12, 13-dibutyrate (PDBu), a protein kinase C (PKC) activator, induced podosome formation in primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells, and in normal human airway epithelial BEAS2B cells. PDBu-induced podosomes were capable of degrading fibronectin-gelatin-sucrose matrix. PDBu also increased the invasiveness of these epithelial cells. I further demonstrated that PDBu-induced podosome formation was mainly mediated through redistribution of conventional PKCs, especially PKCα, from the cytosol to the podosomes, whereas atypical PKCζ played a dominant role in the proteolytic activity of podosomes through recruitment of MMP-9 to podosomes, and MMP-9 secretion and activiation. I also found that that PDBu can activate PI3K/Akt/Src and ERK1/2 and JNK but not p38. PI3K, Akt and Src were critical for podosome formation, whereas ERK1/2 and JNK mediated the proteolytic activity of podosomes via MMP-9 recruitment, gene expression, release and activation without affecting podosome assembly. Podosomes are important for epithelial cell migration and invasion, thus contributing to respiratory epithelial repair and regeneration. My thesis work unveils the molecular mechanisms that regulate podosomal formation and proteolytic function in normal human bronchial epithelial cells. These novel findings may enhance our understanding of cell migration and invasion in lung development and repair. Similar mechanisms may be also applicable to other cell types in distinct organs.

Certain membrane lipids are involved in intracellular signalling processes, among them phosphoinositides and diacylglycerol (DAG). They mediate a variety of functions, including the effects of nutrients and neurohormonal stimuli on insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells. To ensure specificity of the signal, their concentrations are maintained under tight spatial and temporal control. Here, live-cell imaging techniques were employed to investigate spatio-temporal aspects of lipid signalling in the plasma membrane of insulin-secreting β-cells. The concentration of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate [PtdIns(4)P] increased after stimulation with glucose or Gq protein-coupled receptor agonists. The glucose effect was Ca2+-dependent, whereas the receptor response was mediated by isoforms of novel protein kinase C (PKC). The increases in PtdIns(4)P were paralleled by lowerings of the phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] concentration. This relationship was not caused by conversion of PtdIns(4,5)P2 to PtdIns(4)P but rather reflected independent regulation of the two lipids. Stimulation of β-cells with glucose or a high K+ concentration induced pronounced, repetitive increases in plasma-membrane DAG concentration, which were locally restricted and lasted only for a few seconds. This pattern was caused by exocytotic release of ATP, which feedback-activates purinergic P2Y1-receptors and stimulates local phospholipase C-mediated DAG generation. Despite their short durations the DAG spikes triggered local activation of PKC. Novel PKCs were recruited to the plasma membrane both after glucose and muscarinic receptor stimulation. While the glucose-induced translocation was synchronized with DAG spiking, muscarinic stimulation induced sustained elevation of the DAG concentration and stable membrane association of the kinase. Also conventional PKCs translocated to the membrane after glucose and receptor stimulation. The glucose-induced response was complex with sustained membrane association mirroring the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration, and superimposed brief recurring translocations caused by DAG. Interruption of the purinergic feedback loop underlying DAG spiking suppressed insulin secretion. Since the DAG spikes reflected exocytosis events, a single-cell secretion assay was established, which allowed continuous recording of secretion dynamics from many cells in parallel over extended periods of time. With this approach it was possible to demonstrate that insulin exerts negative feedback on its own release via a phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent mechanism.

The most active form of Vitamin D, 1alpha,25(OH)2D3, modulates cells via receptor mediated mechanisms. While studies have elucidated the pathway via the classical nuclear Vitamin D Receptor (VDR), little is known about the membrane-associated Vitamin D Receptor (ERp60). Caveolae and its characteristic protein Caveolin-1 have been involved in many signaling pathways due to its specific structure and physical configuration. Other studies have shown that many components of the Vitamin D pathway have been found in caveolae. This study hypothesizes that caveolae and Caveolin-1 are important for the effects of 1,25 Vitamin D signaling via ERp60. Research up to date have shown that in rat and mouse growth zone chondrocytes, cells deprived of intact caveolae either through disruption through beta-Cyclodextrin or genetic knockout do not exhibit the characteristic responses to Vitamin D through ERp60 when compared to chondrocytes with functional caveolae. Studies using immunofluorescence co-localization and caveolae fractionation have shown that ERp60 is localized in the caveolae domains. Cellular fractionation was also performed to examine the localization of the ERp60 receptor in lipid rafts and caveolae. Histology and transmission electron microscopy were also used to examine the physiological importance of caveolae and Caveolin-1 in growth plate morphology and cellular characteristics.

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is the proto-type member of a super family of secreted proteins comprised of several structurally related, but functionally divergent proteins like the BMP, activin, inhibin, mullerian inhibitory substance etc. TGF-β was originally identified as a secreted factor, which in the presence of EGF was capable of transforming normal rat kidney fibroblasts. Studies over the years have shown that this protein is multifunctional that influences several processes including development, immune function, epithelial cell growth and motility, wound healing etc. TGF-β plays important role in the normal physiology as well as in pathological conditions in mammals. There are three mammalian isoforms that are involved in several developmental processes as has been shown by the knockout mice models. An important role for TGF-β has been implicated in several disease processes like fibrotic disorders (of liver, lung, kidney), inflammatory disorders (rheumatoid arthritis), autoimmune disorders (systemic lupus erythematosus) and cancer. TGF-β has a dual role in carcinogenesis. Initially it acts as a tumor suppressor and causes growth arrest of epithelial cells and cells in the early stages of cancer. But in an established tumor, TGF-β exerts an effect which is favorable for the survival, progression and metastasis of the tumor by promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis and escape from immune surveillance. Studies using mouse models have shown that an intact TGF-β signaling is essential for the metastasis of breast cancer. These observations indicate that the normal epithelial cells show differential response to TGF-β as compared to the tumor they give rise to. Supporting this, it has been shown that prostate tumor cells show invasive behavior in response to TGF-β and not non-tumorigenic cells. Most actions of TGF-β are brought about by regulation of gene expression and differential gene expression mediated by TGF-β has been reported in tumor cells and normal cells. For example, in response to TGF-β, tumorcells show increase in the production of proteases like uPA, MMPs etc and down regulation of the inhibitors of proteases TIMP isoforms, whereas this is not observed in the normal cells. However, there is no clear understanding of the mechanism (s) responsible for differential responses of various cell types to TGF-β. Since a role for TGF-β has been established in several pathological conditions particularly cancer and fibortic disorders, this pathway are a very attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Hence, if the TGF-β pathway has to be targeted for therapy of any disease, it becomes essential to identify the targets of TGF-β in different cell-types and their mechanism of regulation, particularly in un-transformed and transformed cells. Over the past few years, there have been several independent transcriptome analyses of cells in response to TGF-β treatment in various cell types such as HaCaT, fibroblasts, corneal epithelial cells etc. From a comparison of these studies, it is noted that TGF-β regulates genes in a cell type specific manner. Considering the dual role of TGF-β on normal and transformed cells, identification of genes and/or biochemical pathways regulated by TGF-β in these cells may allow identification of therapeutic targets for diseases involving TGF-β signaling pathway. With this background, the following objectives were set for the current investigation: 1. Identification of targets of TGF-β in normal and tumor cells and also the genes differentially regulated by TGF-β 2. Understand the mechanism of regulation of a few selected genes 3. Characterize novel targets of TGF-β with respect to their regulation by TGF-β and also their function Towards the aim of identification of targets of TGF-β in different cell-lines, expression profiling of genes in response to TGF-β was performed in a lung adenocarcinoma cell line (A549) and a matched immortalized lung epithelial cell line (HPL1D). Our data showed similar regulation of 267 genes in HPL1D and A549 cells by TGF-β. This suggests that the genes commonly regulated in both HPL1D and A549 are not tumor specific. Some of these genes were also reported to be regulated by TGF-β in other studies using micro array in various cell types. While 1757 genes are exclusively regulated by TGF-β in A549, only 733 genes are exclusively regulated in HPL1D cells. The reasons for this differential response are not known. However, some of the genes exclusively regulated in A549 such as Integrin αV, thrombospondin 1 have been shown to aid tumor survival, maintenance and metastasis. In contrast, in HPL1D, TGF-β regulates tumor suppressor genes like WT1, ECM proteins like collagen which are responsible for arrest of cell growth and apoptosis. This differential gene regulation in normal and tumor cells may explain the dual role of TGF-β in carcinogenesis. The differences in the effects of TGF-β on these two cell-lines could be due to the phenotypic properties of these cells, HPL1D being a non-transformed cell-line and A549 being a transformed cell-line. It is also possible that the differences are due to cell-type specific effects. In order to address this question, expression profiling in response to TGF-β was carried out using another cell-line namely HaCaT, which is an immortalized skin keratinocyte cell-line. When the expression profiles of the three celllines namely HPL1D, HaCaT and A549 in response to TGF-β treatment were compared, it was found that the genes regulated by TGF-β can be divided into seven categories based on the cell-line in which they are regulated. In this comparison, it was seen that there were several genes which were regulated by TGF-β in A549 and HaCaT despite the fact that these two cell-lines have little in common. The reason for these two celllines to show similarities in their gene expression profile in response to TGF-β is unclear. When the genes regulated by TGF-β in the three cell-lines were categorized based on their annotated functions using the DAVID tool, it was found that signaling pathways like MAP kinas, focal adhesion, Wnt signaling are regulated by TGF-β in all the celllines. On the other hand, Integrin αV was found to be regulated in A549 and HaCaT cells and very marginal regulation was seen in HPL1D cells. This could be one of the reasons for the similarities between A549 and HaCaT. There are studies which show the role of Integrin αV in some of the TGF-β mediated actions although the mechanism by which Integrin signaling modulates gene expression is not well understood. Our data shows that indeed thrombospondin 1 which is regulated by TGF-β in A549 and HaCaT is regulated through the integrin signaling pathways as blocking this pathway partially blocks the induction of this gene by TGF-β. TGF-β actions on cells are to a large extent are carried out by the phosphorylation of SMAD 2/3 by activated TGF-β type I receptor upon TGF-β signaling. Several genes that are transcriptionally regulated by TGF-β contain a SMAD complex binding element (SBE). However, over the last few years, evidences have accumulated which suggest that some actions of TGF-β could be independent of SMADs, mediated by the other signaling pathways like the MAP kinas, PKC and others. In order to understand the mechanism of regulation of a few selected genes by TGF−β, inhibitors for the three MAP kinas pathways (p38, ERK and JNK) were used prior to treatment with TGF-β. The expression of these genes was assessed by qRT-PCR analyses. These studies showed that most of the genes regulated by TGF-β require one or more of the MAP kinas pathways. In HaCaT and A549, the number of genes dependent on the MAP kinas pathways is more compared to HPL1D. Based on our data, we propose that activated MAP kinas pathway could be one of the essential determining factors for the various differential actions of TGF-β in tumor cells. However, the reason for the behaviour of HaCaT cells, which are untransformed cells in a manner similar to the A549 cells, is still unclear. One of the reasons for the similarity could be the activation of the integrin signaling pathway as described before. The expression profiling data identified several novel targets of TGF-β. One such target is S100A2, a calcium binding protein containing an EF hand motif that has been implicated in cancer. A progressive reduction in the expression of this gene has been reported with increasing grade of the tumor. Our studies show that this gene is regulated by TGF-β in HaCaT and HPl1D, but not in A549 cells. The induction of S100A2 by TGF-β in HaCaT cells is likely to be transcriptional as it is sensitive to actinomycin treatment. We further investigated role of other signaling pathways in the regulation of S100A2 by TGF-β and found that the regulation of this gene by TGF-β depends on the ERK and also the integrin signaling pathways. In order to characterize this gene with respect to its functions, A549 cells were chosen as they have very low endogenous expression of S100A2. Hence, in order to explore if there is any role for the loss of S100A2 expression in the progression of A549 cells, we cloned the DNA of S100A2 in a mammalian expression vector, transected A549 cells with this and isolated clones stably expressing this gene. We performed assays to assess cell proliferation, cell migration and potential to form colonies in soft agar. The data suggests phenotypic differences in the colonies that formed in soft agar and no major differences in other assays. Overall, our data has identified several novel targets regulated by TGF-β other than S100A2 like IGFBP7, FGFR1, and SPUVE etc. Further, regulation of several genes was found to be in a cell type specific manner involving MAP kinase and integrin signaling pathways. This study also identified major differences in the genes regulated by TGF-β in transformed and non-transformed lung epithelial cells.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2003. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 98-113).

Until recently, the main mechanism of argininosuccinate synthase (AS) regulation was described to exist mainly at the level of transcription. Transcriptional regulation of AS has been shown to be coordinate with eNOS in response to shear stress, hypoxia, tumor necrosis factor á (TNF-á), and PPAR ã agonist troglitizone. However, it is now understood that one level of NO regulation is cellular control of arginine availability to eNOS via post-translational modifications of AS such as phosphorylation. The purpose of this investigation was to determine under what conditions AS is phosphorylated at S328, identify the pathway that AS phosphorylation at S328 plays a role, and how phosphorylation affects AS function in endothelial cells. We developed a phospho-specific antibody directed against pS328 AS and assayed for increases or decreases in phosphorylation relative to physiological factors. We found that AS phosphorylation at S328 occurred when endothelial cells were stimulated with physiological factors that stimulate nitric oxide production through calcium-dependent stimulation of eNOS. Furthermore, by utilizing kinase inhibitors and kinase knockdown experiments, we showed that phosphorylation at S328 significantly decreased when PKCá was knocked down, suggesting that S328 phosphorylation of AS is involved in PKCá signaling. In addition, by confocal microscopy, immunoprecipitation, and membrane fractionation, we showed that phosphorylation at S328 of AS promotes its co-localization with eNOS in the perinuclear region. These findings describe a novel pathway involving AS regulation of nitric oxide production, and may serve as a novel drug target in the restoration of vascular nitric oxide homeostasis.

Short-term synaptic plasticity results from use-dependent activity, lasts on the timescale of milliseconds to minutes, and is thought to underlie working memory and neuronal information processing. Here, we focus on two forms of short-term plasticity: 1) post-tetanic potentiation (PTP), which is induced by high-frequency stimulation, and 2) presynaptic ionotropic receptor-activated synaptic enhancement, which can be produced by the activation of presynaptic glycine receptors. Potentiation of evoked and spontaneous responses is thought to arise from elevations in presynaptic residual Ca2+, which activates one or more molecular targets to increase neurotransmitter release. However, the Ca2+ sensor protein has not yet been identified. The overall goal of this work is to elucidate the Ca2+-dependent mechanisms of short-term plasticity.

Τα φυσικά προϊόντα αποτελούν σημαντική πηγή βιοδραστικών ενώσεων με ποικίλο φαρμακολογικό ενδιαφέρον. Παρά την τεράστια πρόοδο που έχει συντελεστεί στη χημική σύνθεση φαρμάκων, ακόμα και σήμερα το ¼ των φαρμάκων που διατίθεται στην αγορά προέρχεται από φυσικές πηγές. Η σύγχρονη ανακάλυψη φαρμάκων βασίζεται πλέον στην εστιασμένη δράση ενώσεων έναντι συγκεκριμένων μοριακών στόχων που εμπλέκονται στην εμφάνιση και εξέλιξη της κάθε νόσου. Μοριακοί στόχοι με ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον είναι και οι κυκλινο-εξαρτώμενες κινάσες (CDKs). Οι CDKs είναι μια κατηγορία πρωτεϊνικών κινασών οι οποίες μεταξύ άλλων διαδραματίζουν καθοριστικό ρόλο στη ρύθμιση και ομαλή εξέλιξη του κυτταρικού κύκλου, διασφαλίζοντας τον φυσιολογικό πολλαπλασιασμό των κυττάρων. Η απορρύθμιση της λειτουργίας τους έχει ως επακόλουθο την εμφάνιση διαφόρων παθολογικών καταστάσεων μεταξύ των οποίων και διαφόρων καρκινικών όγκων. Μέχρι σήμερα πληθώρα φυσικών και συνθετικών ενώσεων έχουν εμφανίσει ανασταλτική δράση έναντι των CDKs και αρκετές από αυτές βρίσκονται σε προχωρημένα στάδια κλινικών δοκιμών. Πρόσφατα πειραματικά δεδομένα έδειξαν ότι η CDK1, ελλείψει των υπολοίπων CDKs της μεσόφασης (2, 4, 6), επαρκεί για την ομαλή ολοκλήρωση του κυτταρικού κύκλου. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά έγιναν αφορμή ώστε πολλές ερευνητικές προσπάθειες να στραφούν και προς την ανάπτυξη ενώσεων με εκλεκτική δράση έναντι της CDK1. Σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης είναι ο σχεδιασμός και η σύνθεση νέων μικρών ετεροκυκλικών μορίων με πιθανή ανασταλτική δράση έναντι του ενζύμου CDK1. Συγκεκριμένα, σχεδιάσθηκαν νέα παράγωγα που θα έφεραν δύο νέους ισομερείς τετρακυκλικούς ινδολοαζεπινικούς σκελετούς. Ο σχεδιασμός των ενώσεων αυτών βασίστηκε σε δομικά χαρακτηριστικά φυσικών ή συνθετικών ενώσεων που έχουν μελετηθεί και έχουν εμφανίσει ανασταλτική δράση έναντι τόσο της CDK1 όσο και άλλων CDKs. Βασικό δομικό χαρακτηριστικό των τελικών μορίων, που έχει αποδειχθεί κρίσιμο για την εκδήλωση CDK ανασταλτικής δράσης σε συγγενείς ενώσεις, είναι ένας επταμελής λακταμικός δακτύλιος ο οποίος συμπυκνώνεται σε κατάλληλες θέσεις με έναν ινδολικό και έναν πυρρολικό δακτύλιο. Η υποκατάσταση του πυρρολικού δακτυλίου με μία καρβοξυαιθυλ-ομάδα στη θέση-2, σε συνδυασμό με την εισαγωγή κατάλληλων υποκαταστατών στον ινδολικό δακτύλιο, δύναται να οδηγήσει σε βιβλιοθήκες αναλόγων. Η προσέγγιση που ακολουθήθηκε για την σύνθεση των τελικών μορίων περιελάμβανε αμιδική σύζευξη κατάλληλων ινδολικών και πυρρολικών πρόδρομων ενώσεων και Pd-καταλυόμενη ενδομοριακή κυκλοποίηση (σύζευξη Heck) για τον σχηματισμό του βασικού τετρακυκλικού ινδολοαζεπινικού σκελετού. Στα πλαίσια της μελέτης, αρχικά μελετήθηκε η συνθετική πορεία παραλαβής αναλόγων ενός εκ των δύο αρχικά σχεδιασθέντων σκελετών. Η διερεύνηση και βελτιστοποίηση των ενδιάμεσων συνθετικών σταδίων οδήγησε στην σύνθεση 59 νέων ενδιάμεσων μορίων και 4 νέων τετρακυκλικών ινδολοαζεπινονικών τελικών προϊόντων. Τα τελικά προϊόντα έφεραν προστατευμένα τόσο το άζωτο του ινδολίου όσο και του πυρρολίου με την ίδια προστατευτική ομάδα, ενώ η προσπάθεια παραλαβής αναλόγων του μη προστατευμένου σκελετού δεν ήταν επιτυχής. Τέλος, η διερεύνηση της συνθετικής πορείας που θα απέδιδε ανάλογα του δεύτερου σκελετού δεν απέδωσε τα αναμενόμενα αποτελέσματα. / Natural products constitute an important source of bioactive compounds with a pharmacological interest. 25% of the drugs that are nowadays available in the market come from natural sources, despite the great progress in the field of chemical composition. Drugs’ development is currently based upon the focused action of certain compounds towards a specific molecular target which is involved in the appearance and evolution of each disease. Some such molecular targets of particular interest are the Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). CDKs are a subfamily of protein kinases that regulate a number of cellular processes, including the cell cycle, ensuring the normality of cell division. The deregulation of their function leads to several diseases, including human tumour. To this day a large number of natural and chemical compounds have been characterized as CDK inhibitors and some of them are already in the late phases of clinical trials. Recent genetic studies have indicated that CDK1 is sufficient to drive the cell cycle in absence of other CDKs (2, 4, 6). These results have led researchers to develop compounds with selective inhibitory activity against CDK1. The current research aims at the development of new compounds with possible inhibitory activity against CDK1. The scientific process was more specifically based on the design and synthesis of new small heterocyclic, tetracyclic indoloazepino compounds. The design of the above compounds was based on structural features that exist in other already known natural or chemical CDK inhibitors. The biological results of similar compounds have indicated that the seven-member lactamic ring of structure has an important role in the inhibitory CDK activity. The basic structural component of the designed compounds, proven to be crucial for the manifestation of the CDK inhibitory function, is a seven member lactamic ring among a pyrrole and indole nuclei. The substitution of the pyrrole with a 2-ethyl-carboxylic substitute along with the introduction of substitutes on specific positions of the indole nuclei are expected to lead to the development of library compounds. The selected procedure includes amide coupling between specific indole and pyrrole compounds and finally C-C intermolecular coupling with Heck reaction. The final aim is to form the basic tetracyclic indoloazepino structure. The current research was primarily directed to the synthesis of one of the two already designed structures. The intermediate reactions of the above structure’s synthetic process were examined and optimized, leading to the isolation of 60 intermediate compounds and 4 new tetracyclic indoloazepino derivatives. In the final derivatives, the pyrrole and indole nitrogen appeared to be protected under the same protective group while an effort to remove these protective groups, through certain reactions, was unsuccessful. Finally, a research into a synthetic process that would provide corresponding derivatives with the second main structure, did not yield the expected results.

No description available.

Small proline-rich protein-2 (SPRR2) functions as a determinant of flexibility and permeability in the mature cornified envelope of the skin. SPRR2 is strongly upregulated by the commensal flora and may mediate signaling to differentiated epithelia of the small intestine and colon. Yet, SPRR2 function in the GI tract is largely unexplored. Using the Caco-2 model of intestinal epithelial differentiation along the crypt-villus axis, we hypothesized that SPRR2 would be preferentially expressed in post-confluent differentiated Caco-2 cells and examined SPRR2 regulation by the protein kinase A pathway (PKA) and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Differentiation-dependent SPRR2 expression was examined in cytoskeletal-, membrane-, and nuclear-enriched fractions by immunoblotting and confocal immunofluorescence. We studied the effect of SCFAs, known inducers of differentiation, on SPRR2 expression in pre-confluent undifferentiated Caco-2 cells and explored potential mechanisms involved in this induction using MAP kinase inhibitors. SPRR2 expression was also compared between HIEC crypt cells and 16 to 20 week primary fetal villus cells as well as in different segments in mouse small intestine and colon. We determined if SPRR2 is increased by gram negative bacteria such as S. typhimurium. SPRR2 expression increased in a differentiation-dependent manner in Caco-2 cells and was present in human fetal epithelial villus cells but absent in HIEC crypt cells. Differentiation-induced SPRR2 was down-regulated by 8-Br-cAMP as well as by forskolin/IBMX co-treatment. SPRR2 was predominantly cytoplasmic and did not accumulate in Triton X-100-insoluble cytoskeletal fractions. SPRR2 was present in the membrane- and nuclear-enriched fractions and demonstrated co-localization with F-actin at the apical actin ring. No induction was seen with the specific HDAC inhibitor trichostatin A, while SCFAs and the HDAC inhibitor SBHA all induced SPRR2. SCFA responses were inhibited by MAP kinase inhibitors SB203580 and U0126, thus suggesting that the SCFA effect may be mediated by orphan G-protein receptors GPR41 and GPR43. S. typhimurium induced SPRR2 in undifferentiated cells. We conclude that SPRR2 protein expression is associated with differentiated epithelia and is regulated by PKA signaling and by by-products of the bowel flora. This is the first report to establish an in vitro model to study the physiology and regulation of SPRR2. / Thesis (Master, Anatomy & Cell Biology) -- Queen's University, 2008-04-25 12:39:06.427 / This work was funded by the CIHR GIDRU Training Grant and Aid in Research from Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of Canada