Les bactéries à Gram négatif sont caractérisées par une organisation complexe de leur enveloppe,impliquant une membrane interne (ou cytoplasmique), un espace périplasmique et une membrane externe. Si le transport de petits composés chimiques se fait facilement, la sécrétion des protéines et des toxines nécessite par contre l’utilisation de machineries spécialisées : les systèmes de sécrétion.Chez Pseudomonas aeriginosa, une bactérie pathogène opportuniste, le système de sécrétion de Type II, ou sécrétion Xcp, constitue l’une des voies principales de la sécrétion. Ce sécréton Xcp est un complexe macromoléculaire de 12 protéines, nommées XcpAO et XcpPC-ZM, organisé en trois sous-complexes : une plateforme d’assemblage ancrée dans la membrane interne (XcpPC-SF etXcpYL-ZM), un pore localisé dans la membrane externe et formé par multimérisation de la sécrétine XcpQD, et un pseudopilus périplasmique impliquant les pseudopilines XcpTG-XK. Au travers de son introduction bibliographique, ce manuscrit présente les différents constituants de cette machinerie et leur implication dans la sécrétion. Un grand nombre de copies du constituant majoritaire de ce système, XcpTG, s’assemble sous forme d’un pseudopilus dont les cycles d’assemblage –désassemblage, semblables aux mouvements d’un piston, pourraient permettre la sécrétion des substrats à travers la membrane externe. Le travail effectué au cours de cette thèse a pour but d’approfondir la compréhension des conditions d’assemblage du pseudopilus, qui s’avère être une étape cruciale dans la sécrétion. Les résultats obtenus s’articulent autour de la détermination par RMN hétéronucléaire de la structure de XcpTG, le composant majoritaire du pseudopilus etre présente le premier constituant de la machinerie de type II de P. aeruginosa à voir sa structure résolue par RMN. / Gram negative bacteria are characterized by a complex organisation of their cell envelope, with aninner membrane (or cytoplasmic membrane), a periplasmic space and an outer membrane. Incontrast to the transport of chemical compounds, which is preformed usually by porins localized inthe impermeable cell envelop, secretion of proteins and toxins requires specialized machineries: thesecretion systems. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an opportunistic pathogen, among the wide rangeof section systems, the Type II secretion system, called Xcp secreton, is a major pathway for therelease of virulence factors. This Xcp secreton is a macromolecular complex involving 12 proteinscalled XcpA0 and XcpPC to XcpZM. This machinery is organized in 3 complexes, the assemblyplatform anchored in the inner membrane (implicating XcpPC,RE,SF,YL and ZM), the pore localizedin the outer membrane and formed by multimerization of the secretin XcpQD, and the periplasmicpseudopilus involving XcpTG-XK matured by the prepilin peptidase XcpAO. The introduction of thismanuscript presents all the components of the type II secretion system and their principal functionin the secretion process. XcpTG, the major components of this system, seems to polymerize to allowtransfer of secretion products across the outer membrane by a piston-like process. The workpresented in this manuscript is underlined by the idea of improving the understanding of themecanism of the type II secretion. The results articulate around the heteronuclear NMR solutionstructure determination of the XcpTG, which represents the first structure obtained for a componentof the type II secretion system of P. aeruginosa.

Biofilms are communities of microorganisms associated with surfaces encased in a protective extracellular matrix. These communities often pose clinical and industrial challenges due to their ability to tolerate biocidal treatments and removal strategies. Understanding the ecological interactions that take place during biofilm establishment is a key element for designing future treatment strategies. In this work, I utilized unique methods for studying factors contributing to cooperative antibiotic detoxification in a polymicrobial biofilm model. Subsequently, I tested a novel compound mixture that exhibited promising antibiofilm properties. Escapin is an L-amino acid oxidase that acts on lysine to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), ammonia, and equilibrium mixtures of several organic acids collectively called Escapin intermediate products (EIP). Previous work showed that the combination of synthetic EIP and H2O2 functions synergistically as an antimicrobial toward diverse planktonic bacteria. To test the combination of EIP and H2O2 on bacterial biofilms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa was selected as a model, due to its role as an important opportunistic pathogen. Specifically, I examined concentrations of EIP and H2O2 that inhibited biofilm formation or fostered disruption of established biofilms. High-throughput assays of biofilm formation using microtiter plates and crystal violet staining showed a significant effect from pairing EIP and H2O2, resulting in inhibition of biofilm formation relative to untreated controls or to EIP or H2O2 alone. Similarly, flow cell analysis and confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that the EIP and H2O2 combination reduced the biomass of established biofilms relative to controls. Area layer analysis of biofilms post-treatment indicated that disruption of biomass occurs down to the substratum. Only nanomolar to micromolar concentrations of EIP and H2O2 were required to impact biofilm formation or disruption, which are significantly lower concentrations than those causing bactericidal effects on planktonic bacteria. Micromolar concentrations of EIP and H2O2 combined enhanced P. aeruginosa swimming motility compared to either EIP or H2O2 alone. Collectively, these results suggest that the combination of EIP and H2O2 may affect biofilms by interfering with bacterial attachment and destabilizing the biofilm matrix.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is found in numerous environments and is an opportunistic pathogen affecting those who are immunocompromised. Its large genome encodes tremendous metabolic and regulatory diversity that enables P. aeruginosa to adapt to various environments. We are interested in how P. aeruginosa senses and responds to the host-derived compounds, carnitine and acylcarnitines. Acylcarnitines can be hydrolyzed to carnitine, where the liberated carnitine and its catabolic product glycine betaine can be used as osmoprotectants, for induction of the virulence factor phospholipase C, and as sole carbon, nitrogen, and energy sources. P. aeruginosa is incapable of de novo synthesis of carnitine and acylcarnitines and therefore imports these compounds from exogenous source. Short-chain acylcarnitines are imported by the ABC transporter CaiX-CbcWV. Medium- and long-chain acylcarnitines are hydrolyzed extracytoplasmically and the liberated carnitine is transported through CaiX-CbcWV. Once in the cytoplasm, short-chain acylcarnitines are hydrolyzed by the L-enantiomer specific hydrolase, HocS. The transcriptional regulator CdhR is divergently transcribed from the carnitine catabolism operon and we have identified the upstream activating region, the binding site sequence, and essential residues required for CdhR binding and induction of the carnitine operon. Carnitine catabolism is repressed by glucose and glycine betaine at the transcriptional level. Furthermore, using two different cdhR translational fusions we show that CdhR enhances its own expression and that GbdR, a related transcription factor, contributes to cdhR expression by enhancing the level of basal expression. These studies are the first to determine the mechanism of O-acylcarnitine transport, metabolism, and the regulation of these processes, which contribute to utilization of these compounds for P. aeruginosa survival in diverse environments.

Somete a la cepa ambiental Pseudomonas aeruginosa 6K-11 a mutagénesis aleatoria mediante radiación ultravioleta (254 nm), consiguiéndose una producción de ramnolípidos de 32.3 g/l y la alteración en abundancia de las especies químicas producidas. Así mismo, se registra una reducción de 6 horas del tiempo de máxima producción en un bioproceso por lotes sumergido en un medio mineral suplementado con aceite de maíz como fuente de carbono. La cepa mutante muestra una menor producción de monorramnolípidos de cadenas hidrofóbicas de 10 y de 12 átomos de carbono (Rha-C10-C12, Rha-C12-C10) y un incremento sustancial de los siete dirramnolípidos estudiados y de los monorramnolípidos de hidroxialcanoatos de 8 y 10 carbonos (Rha-C8-C10, Rha-C10-C8, Rha-C10-C10, Rha-C10-C12:1). De forma paralela, la cepa Pseudomonas aeruginosa 6K-11 es curada de bacteriófagos temperados aplicando un protocolo que conjuga un inductor lítico de naturaleza química, ciprofloxacino, y otro físico, como es la radiación ultravioleta. / Tesis

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) patients are not easily cleared due to the conversion from a nonmucoid to a mucoid phenotype. Alginate is an acetylated exopolysaccharide produced by mucoid PA that is responsible for increased resistance to antibiotics, host phagocytic killing, and propagating biofilm formation. Understanding the interaction between PA and host cells is critical to understanding chronic infection and inflammation in CF. In order to investigate this, we used A549 pulmonary epithelial cells and murine alveolar macrophages (MH-S) to examine host response to nonmucoid versus mucoid PA infection. Adhesion assays in A549 pulmonary epithelial cells revealed that mucoid PA mutants adhere poorly compared to their nonmucoid counterparts. Similarly, phagocytosis assays using MH-S infected with PA revealed that mucoid PA are increasingly resistant to phagocytosis. The alginate acetylation mutant FRD1175 is more susceptible to phagocytic killing than alginate+ FRD1. Adherence and phagocytosis of mucoid FRD1 was increased by increasing the multiplicity of infection (MOI) from 50:1 to 500:1. Furthermore, confocal microscopy revealed that mucoid PA are inherently less inflammatory than nonmucoid strains in both A549 and MH-S. Increasing the MOI of mucoid FRD1 from 50:1 to 500:1 significantly increased caspase-1 activation in MH-S but not in A549, revealing that intensity of inflammatory signaling by epithelial cells is likely independent of increased adherence. FRD1175 infection in both A549 and MH-S revealed that alginate acetylation plays a significant role in reducing inflammasome activation. Western analysis revealed that PA does not actively induce TGF-β secretion by A549 epithelial cells. Similarly, NF-κB expression was reduced in both A549 and MH-S when infected with mucoid FRD strains, but not PA from the PAO background, suggesting FRD strains have accumulated additional mutations facilitating escape of inflammation. MH-S treated with cytochalasin D to block phagocytosis were still able to activate NF-κB signaling, suggesting NF-κB activation is adherence but not phagocytosis dependent. These data increase our understanding of the various mechanisms in which mucoid PA is able to evade host immune defenses and provides insight into potential therapies to treat PA infections.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common fatal genetic disorder that afflicts young Canadians. The major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with CF is chronic pulmonary infection with the opportunistic Gram-negative pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Once established, P. aeruginosa lung infections cannot be cleared despite sustained and aggressive antimicrobial therapy. Treatment failure of P. aeruginosa lung infections is caused by a combination of antibiotic resistance and tolerance mechanisms. Antibiotic resistance is mainly mediated by multidrug efflux pumps such as MexAB-OprM. Antibiotic tolerance has been attributed to biofilms and to nutrient starvation. In this thesis, I present an analysis of three transcriptional regulators (PA3225, RpoS, and RpoN) and their contributions to resistance and tolerance in P. aeruginosa. PA3225 is a transcriptional regulator that I initially identified as a candidate regulator of a type VI secretion system (T6SS) that had been previously implicated in biofilm tolerance. While a ΔPA3225 deletion mutant did not, unfortunately, have dysregulated expression of the T6SS, I fortuitously discovered that the mutant displayed increased resistance to various antibiotics from different functional classes. I linked the increased antibiotic resistance of ΔPA3225 to upregulation of MexAB-OprM and provided evidence that PA3225 may be a direct repressor of mexAB-oprM. Next, I sought to identify a transcriptional regulator of ndvB, which is another gene that plays a role in biofilm tolerance. I found that the stationary phase sigma factor, RpoS, was essential for expression of ndvB in stationary phase and biofilm cells. Moreover, RpoS was important for tolerance of stationary phase cells to tobramycin (TOB), an aminoglycoside antibiotic that is used to treat CF patients. In recent years, several groups have sought to identify novel treatments to combat antibiotic tolerance in P. aeruginosa. A popular strategy is metabolic potentiation, which involves co-administration of an antibiotic with a metabolite to reverse tolerance due to nutrient starvation. For example, one group found that fumarate (FUM) combined with TOB (TOB+FUM) was highly effective at killing tolerant P. aeruginosa. FUM uptake depends on C4-dicarboyxlate transporters, which are transcriptionally regulated by the alternative sigma factor, RpoN. Importantly, rpoN loss-of-function mutations are a recognised mechanism of pathoadaptation in CF clinical isolates. I demonstrated that TOB+FUM was unable to kill ΔrpoN stationary phase and biofilm cells due to loss of FUM uptake and that rpoN alleles from CF clinical isolates were unable to complement the ΔrpoN mutant. These findings could have important implications for TOB+FUM as a treatment modality in CF patients with a high burden of rpoN mutants. Overall, my work has provided interesting and, in the case of RpoN, clinically relevant insights into the regulatory networks that determine antibiotic susceptibility in P. aeruginosa.

The historical notion of a microbial population has been of a clonal population of identical swimming planktonic cells in a laboratory flask. As the field has advanced, we have grown to appreciate the immense diversity in microbial behaviors, from their propensity to grow in dense surface-attached communities as a biofilm, to the consequences of social dilemmas between cells, to their ability to form spores able to survive nearly any environmental insult. However, the historically biased view of the clonal microbial population still persists – even when a rare phenotype is investigated, the focus simply shifts to that narrower focal population - and this bias can lead to some of the broader questions relating to the consequences of phenotypic diversity within populations to be overlooked. This work seeks to address this gap by investigating the evolutionary causes and consequences of phenotypic heterogeneity, with a focus on clinically relevant phenotypes. We first develop and experimentally validate a theoretical model describing the evolution of a microbial population faced with a trade-off between survival and fecundity phenotypes (e.g. biofilm and planktonic cells), which suggests that simultaneous investment in both types maximizes lineage fitness in heterogeneous environments. This model helps to inform the experimental studies in the following chapters. We find that biofilm-mediated phenotypic resistance to antibiotics is evolutionarily labile, and responsive to antibiotic dose and whether biofilm or planktonic cells are passaged. We also show that persistence in E. coli is age-independent, supporting the current hypothesis of stochastic metabolic fluctuations as the cause of this rare phenotype. Finally, we explore phenotypic variation across a library of natural isolates of P. aeruginosa, and find few organizing principles among key phenotypes related to virulence. Together these results suggest that phenotypic heterogeneity is a crucial component in the ecology and evolution of microbial populations, and directly affects pressing applied concerns such as the antibiotic resistance crisis.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa é um importante patógeno humano oportunista capaz de causar severas infecções em pacientes imunodeprimidos e em pacientes que apresentam fibrose cística. Para desencadear uma resposta efetiva contra a infecção pela P. aeruginosa é necessário uma primeira linha de reconhecimento desta bactéria pelo sistema imunológico inato. Apesar do desencadeamento da resposta imune inata ser benéfica no controle da infecção pela P. aeruginosa, esta resposta deve ser controlada. Estudos recentes têm começado a esclarecer como os miRNAs desempenham papéis fundamentais na regulação de processos como infecção, resposta imune e inflamação participando da modulação da resposta imune. Dada a relevância da bactéria P. aeruginosa nos processos infecciosos em humanos e estimulados pela necessidade de desvendar os mecanismos de regulação da reposta imune contra esta bactéria, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o papel do mmu-miR-155-5p e mmu-miR-146b-5p expressos em camundongos infectados pelas cepas ATCC 27853 e PA14 da bactéria P. aeruginosa. Para avaliar o nível de expressão dos mmu-miR-155-5p e mmu-miR-146b-5p e das citocinas IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-12 in vitro, o RNA total foi extraído de células Raw 264.7, macrófagos derivados da medula óssea (BMDM) e de células dendríticas derivadas da medula óssea (BMDC) para análise de PCR em tempo real. Após a infecção das células Raw 264.7, BMDMs e BMDCs foi possível observar que a expressão dos miRNAs e das citocinas ocorreu de forma dependente em cada tipo celular infectado. Para as análises in vivo camundongos C57BL/6 foram infectados via intratraqueal com as cepas ATCC 27853 e PA14 de P. aeruginosa para análises de UFCs, RT-qPCR, histopatologia e estereologia. Apenas a cepa PA14 foi recuperada no pulmão e baço dos animais, onde não foi observado variação na expressão do mmu-miR-155-5p nem aumento significativo de uma série de citocinas efetoras. As análises histopatológicas demostraram intenso processo inflamatório difuso apresentando número maior de células inflamatórias, diminuição no número de alvéolos e do volume da estrela quando comparados aos animais não infectados e animais infectados pela cepa avirulenta. No pulmão dos animais infectados com a cepa ATCC 27853, observou-se aumento de expressão de mmu-miR-155-5p e mmu-miR-146b-5p, das citocinas inflamatórias. A identificação das redes de regulação dos miRNAs em estudo mostrou importantes alvos diretos e indiretos associados à resposta imune inata que podem estar comprometidas durante a expressão diferencial de mmu-miR-155-5p e mmu-miR-146b-5p em favorecimento ou em detrimento da resolução da infecção pela P. aeruginosa. Os resultados obtidos até o momento permitem sugerir que a infecção pela P. aeruginosa exerce uma modulação na expressão de miRNAs e consequentemente na resposta imune contra esta bactéria e que a virulência de diferentes cepas de P. aeruginosa influenciam na expressão dos miRNAs mmu-miR-155-5p e mmu-miR-146b-5p, de citocinas pró-inflamatórias e na patologia. Mais estudos são necessários para desvendar os mecanismos pelos quais cepas virulentas da P. aeruginosa conseguem subverter a resposta imune e garantir a sua replicação no hospedeiro. / Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an important opportunistic human pathogen capable of causing severe infections in immunocompromised patients and in patients with cystic fibrosis. To trigger an effective response against infection by P. aeruginosa is required a first line of recognition of this bacterium by the innate immune system. Although the innate immune response is beneficial in the control of P. aeruginosa infection, this response should be controlled. Recent studies have begun to clarify how miRNAs play key roles in regulating processes such as infection, immune response and inflammation by participating in the immune response modulation. Due to the importance of the P. aeruginosa bacterium in infectious processes in humans and stimulated by the need to uncover the mechanisms of regulation of the immune response against this bacterium, the objective of this study was to evaluate the role of mmu-miR-155-5p and mmu-miR-146b -5p expressed in mice infected with strains ATCC 27853 and PA14 of the bacterium P. aeruginosa. To assess the level of expression of mmu-miR-155-5p and mmu-miR-146b-5p and the cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-12 in vitro, the total RNA was extracted from Raw 264.7 cells, bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM) and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC) for real-time PCR analysis. After infection of the Raw 264.7, BMDMs and BMDCs cells, it was possible to observe that the expression of miRNAs and cytokines occurred in a dependent manner in each infected cell type. For the in vivo analyzes C57BL / 6 mice were infected intratracheally with the strains ATCC 27853 and PA14 of P. aeruginosa for analysis of CFU, RT-qPCR, histopathology and stereology. Only the PA14 strain was recovered in the lungs and spleens of the animals, where no variation in the expression of mmu-miR-155-5p or a significant increase in a series of effector cytokines was observed. Histopathological analyzes demonstrated an intense diffuse inflammatory process, presenting a larger number of inflammatory cells, a decrease in the number of alveoli and the volume of the star when compared to uninfected animals and animals infected by the avirulent strain. In the lung of animals infected with ATCC 27853 strain, increased expression of mmu-miR-155-5p and mmu-miR-146b-5p, of inflammatory cytokines was observed. The identification of regulatory networks of the miRNAs under study showed important direct and indirect targets associated with the innate immune response that may be compromised during the differential expression of mmu-miR-155-5p and mmu-miR-146b-5p in favor or detriment of P. aeruginosa infection. The results obtained to date suggest that the infection by P. aeruginosa exerts a modulation in the expression of miRNAs and consequently in the immune response against this bacterium and that the virulence of different strains of P. aeruginosa influence the expression of miRNAs mmu-miR- 155-5p and mmu-miR-146b-5p, of proinflammatory cytokines and in pathology. Further studies are needed to uncover the mechanisms by which virulent P. aeruginosa strains can subvert the immune response and ensure replication in its host. / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais - FAPEMIG

The bronchiectatic lung is a diseased state in which the airways are chronically damaged and dilated. This state is found in the clinical entities of cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. These are two highly relevant chronic suppurative lung diseases in which an understanding of the microbiology of these patients is considered key to appropriate management. This has traditionally been via the use of traditional culture techniques. However, with the development of molecular methodologies, the previously perceived wisdom is being challenged. In both cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is considered the most significant pathogen. In CF there has been considerable concern surrounding the risk of transmission of Pseudomonas aeruginosa between patients on the basis of a significant quantity of research into this matter. In contrast, there has been very little research performed into the equivalent risk in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. In this thesis we describe an extensive single-centre epidemiological review of Pseudomonas aeruginosa spanning both these diseases. Via this we have shown evidence of cross-infection within a non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis cohort. This epidemiological review has included multiple genotyping methods including multilocus sequence typing and whole genome sequencing, As an extension of the epidemiological review, we have performed an in silico prediction of hypermutator status from the whole genome sequencing data to provide greater understanding of the likelihood of cross-infection, and have also demonstrated a culture-independent adaption of multilocus sequence typing for potential screening for cross-infection. In addition to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, we have also looked at the wider bacterial community in the lungs of patients with these two conditions via culture-independent techniques. We have shown that whilst Pseudomonas aeruginosa is often an important component, these are clearly complex communities. We have primarily investigated the cohort with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis, but we have demonstrated associations between clinically-relevant markers and complexity of the bacterial communities within the lungs of both these cohorts of patients. Whilst we have used the gold-standard technique of 16S rRNA sequencing, we have also shown the validity of a simple and potentially more feasible profiling technique for standard clinical care. In summary, through the application of culture-dependent and independent molecular techniques, this research has shed light on the epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within our respiratory cohorts, and the complexity and clinical relevance of the wider microbial communities within these patients. Such studies are essential if we are to advance our understanding of the bronchiectatic lung and optimise strategies for patient management.