Este estudo propõe hipóteses das relações filogenéticas entre representantes da ordem Psittaciformes, com base em caracteres morfológicos (osteológicos, principalmente cranianos, e anatômicos da siringe), usando o princípio da parcimônia para análise dos dados. Como o conhecimento prévio da anatomia comparada da siringe na ordem ainda é restrito, com sua nomenclatura anatômica confusa, foi feito, primeiramente, estudo anatômico para possibilitar melhor compreensão dos caracteres siringeais utilizados posteriormente nas análises filogenéticas. Neste estudo anatômico é apresentada uma gama de variações antes desconhecidas, que são confrontadas com o conhecimento prévio da morfologia da siringe dos Psittaciformes. Das variações detectadas, parte ocorre em estruturas que, provavelmente, estão envolvidas na produção dos sons, o que deverá ser levado em consideração em futuros estudos de anatomia funcional. As análises filogenéticas efetuadas contaram com 215 siringes e 208 esqueletos, pertencentes 91 espécies de Psittaciformes (distribuídas em 43 gêneros). Esse conjunto de espécimes foi separado em 53 táxons terminais (monofiléticos em relação ao universo amostrado); uma parte deles (11 ao todo) não tiveram sua siringe ou seu esqueleto estudados, e foram aqui denominados terminais incompletos, por possuírem muitos caracteres indeterminados (?). Ao todo foram codificados 101 caracteres variáveis (62 siringeais e 49 esqueléticos), com os quais foram feitas análises com diferentes composições de terminais incompletos, buscando obter hipóteses filogenéticas mais precisas. Para cada análise principal, efetuada com parte dos caracteres multiestados ordenados, foi realizada análise adicional (com todos os caracteres considerados como não-ordenados) visando verificar a influência desses ordenamentos nas topologias. As hipóteses obtidas foram comparadas com as disponíveis na literatura, e diversas congruências foram encontradas, aumentando assim o \"suporte\" de inúmeros componentes recorrentemente resgatados. As opções de ordenamento afetam mais alguns componentes que outros, e as análises adicionais geraram hipóteses menos concordantes com as da literatura. Os caracteres aqui amostrados contêm inúmeras homoplasias, entretanto, a resolução das hipóteses, fortemente congruentes com as filogenias prévias, reforça a importância e a validade dos caracteres morfológicos para recuperações filogenéticas entre os Psittaciformes, ao contrário do alegado por alguns autores. Com base nas hipóteses aqui obtidas e compiladas, algumas recomendações são feitas para tornar a sistemática dos Psittaciformes mais informativa filogeneticamente: a. inclusão de N. nenday no gênero Aratinga; b. inclusão de A. xanthops no gênero Graydidascalus; c. Reconhecimento de duas famílias na ordem: Nestoridae (Nestor e Strigops) e Psittacidae (com os demais Psittaciformes, inclusive com os representantes da antiga família Cacatuidae). / This study proposes hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships among representatives of the Order Psittaciformes, based on morphological characters (osteological, mainly from skull, and anatomical of syrinx), using the Principle of Parsimony for analysis of data. As previous knowledge on the compared anatomy of syrinx in the order is still restricted, with its anatomical nomenclature confused, an anatomical study was first conducted to yield a better comprehension of syrinx characters, used afterwards in phylogenetic analyses. In this anatomical study, an array of variations not known before is presented, which is compared with previous knowledge of syrinx morphology in Psittaciformes. Among detected variations, some occur in structures that are possibly involved in sound production, which will need to be taken into consideration in future functional anatomy studies. Phylogenetic analyses were based on 215 syrinxes and 208 skeletons, belonging to 91 species of Psittaciformes (distributed in 43 genera). This set of specimens was organized in 53 terminal taxa (monophyletic in relation to the sampled universe); part of them (11 in a whole) did not have their syrinx or skeleton studied and are regarded herein as incomplete terminals for processing many undetermined characters (?). In total, 101 variable characters (62 from syrinx and 49 from skeleton) were coded, with which analyses were made varying composition of incomplete terminals to find more precise phylogenetic hypothesis. For each main analysis, done with part of multi-state characters ordered, an additional analysis was done with all multi-state characters unordered to verify the influence of ordering in topologies. Obtained hypothesis were compared with the ones from literature and many congruencies were found, increasing the \"support\" of innumerous components recurrently retrieved. Options of ordering affect more some components than others, and additional analyses generated hypothesis with less agreement with the ones from literature. Characters herein sampled contain various homoplasies but resolution of hypothesis strongly congruent with previous phylogenies reinforces the importance of morphological characters to retrieve phylogenies among Psittaciformes, contrary to what is affirmed by some authors. Based on hypothesis obtained herein, some recommendations are pointed out to make systematics of Psittaciformes more phylogenetic informative: a. inclusion of N. nenday in the genus Aratinga; b. inclusion of A. xanthops in the genus Graydidascalus; c. Recognition of two families in the order: Nestoridae (Nestor and Strigops) and Psittacidae (with remaining Psittaciformes, including representatives of the former family Cacatuidae).

Este estudo propõe hipóteses das relações filogenéticas entre representantes da ordem Psittaciformes, com base em caracteres morfológicos (osteológicos, principalmente cranianos, e anatômicos da siringe), usando o princípio da parcimônia para análise dos dados. Como o conhecimento prévio da anatomia comparada da siringe na ordem ainda é restrito, com sua nomenclatura anatômica confusa, foi feito, primeiramente, estudo anatômico para possibilitar melhor compreensão dos caracteres siringeais utilizados posteriormente nas análises filogenéticas. Neste estudo anatômico é apresentada uma gama de variações antes desconhecidas, que são confrontadas com o conhecimento prévio da morfologia da siringe dos Psittaciformes. Das variações detectadas, parte ocorre em estruturas que, provavelmente, estão envolvidas na produção dos sons, o que deverá ser levado em consideração em futuros estudos de anatomia funcional. As análises filogenéticas efetuadas contaram com 215 siringes e 208 esqueletos, pertencentes 91 espécies de Psittaciformes (distribuídas em 43 gêneros). Esse conjunto de espécimes foi separado em 53 táxons terminais (monofiléticos em relação ao universo amostrado); uma parte deles (11 ao todo) não tiveram sua siringe ou seu esqueleto estudados, e foram aqui denominados terminais incompletos, por possuírem muitos caracteres indeterminados (?). Ao todo foram codificados 101 caracteres variáveis (62 siringeais e 49 esqueléticos), com os quais foram feitas análises com diferentes composições de terminais incompletos, buscando obter hipóteses filogenéticas mais precisas. Para cada análise principal, efetuada com parte dos caracteres multiestados ordenados, foi realizada análise adicional (com todos os caracteres considerados como não-ordenados) visando verificar a influência desses ordenamentos nas topologias. As hipóteses obtidas foram comparadas com as disponíveis na literatura, e diversas congruências foram encontradas, aumentando assim o \"suporte\" de inúmeros componentes recorrentemente resgatados. As opções de ordenamento afetam mais alguns componentes que outros, e as análises adicionais geraram hipóteses menos concordantes com as da literatura. Os caracteres aqui amostrados contêm inúmeras homoplasias, entretanto, a resolução das hipóteses, fortemente congruentes com as filogenias prévias, reforça a importância e a validade dos caracteres morfológicos para recuperações filogenéticas entre os Psittaciformes, ao contrário do alegado por alguns autores. Com base nas hipóteses aqui obtidas e compiladas, algumas recomendações são feitas para tornar a sistemática dos Psittaciformes mais informativa filogeneticamente: a. inclusão de N. nenday no gênero Aratinga; b. inclusão de A. xanthops no gênero Graydidascalus; c. Reconhecimento de duas famílias na ordem: Nestoridae (Nestor e Strigops) e Psittacidae (com os demais Psittaciformes, inclusive com os representantes da antiga família Cacatuidae). / This study proposes hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships among representatives of the Order Psittaciformes, based on morphological characters (osteological, mainly from skull, and anatomical of syrinx), using the Principle of Parsimony for analysis of data. As previous knowledge on the compared anatomy of syrinx in the order is still restricted, with its anatomical nomenclature confused, an anatomical study was first conducted to yield a better comprehension of syrinx characters, used afterwards in phylogenetic analyses. In this anatomical study, an array of variations not known before is presented, which is compared with previous knowledge of syrinx morphology in Psittaciformes. Among detected variations, some occur in structures that are possibly involved in sound production, which will need to be taken into consideration in future functional anatomy studies. Phylogenetic analyses were based on 215 syrinxes and 208 skeletons, belonging to 91 species of Psittaciformes (distributed in 43 genera). This set of specimens was organized in 53 terminal taxa (monophyletic in relation to the sampled universe); part of them (11 in a whole) did not have their syrinx or skeleton studied and are regarded herein as incomplete terminals for processing many undetermined characters (?). In total, 101 variable characters (62 from syrinx and 49 from skeleton) were coded, with which analyses were made varying composition of incomplete terminals to find more precise phylogenetic hypothesis. For each main analysis, done with part of multi-state characters ordered, an additional analysis was done with all multi-state characters unordered to verify the influence of ordering in topologies. Obtained hypothesis were compared with the ones from literature and many congruencies were found, increasing the \"support\" of innumerous components recurrently retrieved. Options of ordering affect more some components than others, and additional analyses generated hypothesis with less agreement with the ones from literature. Characters herein sampled contain various homoplasies but resolution of hypothesis strongly congruent with previous phylogenies reinforces the importance of morphological characters to retrieve phylogenies among Psittaciformes, contrary to what is affirmed by some authors. Based on hypothesis obtained herein, some recommendations are pointed out to make systematics of Psittaciformes more phylogenetic informative: a. inclusion of N. nenday in the genus Aratinga; b. inclusion of A. xanthops in the genus Graydidascalus; c. Recognition of two families in the order: Nestoridae (Nestor and Strigops) and Psittacidae (with remaining Psittaciformes, including representatives of the former family Cacatuidae).

Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Herz von gesunden Psittaciformes und insbesondere des Graupapageis mithilfe der Ultraschall-Technik zu untersuchen. Die darstellbaren Strukturen sollten vermessen und – soweit möglich - anatomische sowie physiologische Referenzwerte aufgestellt werden, um eine Grundlage für die Beurteilung von Herzen bei Psittaciformes mit Anzeichen einer Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankung zu erhalten. Außerdem sollte die Darstellbarkeit des Herzens im Ultraschallbild zwischen verschiedenen aus unterschiedlichen geographischen Regionen stammenden Psittaciformes verglichen werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurden 110 Psittaciformes untersucht. Alle Vögel wurden zunächst einer ausführlichen Gesundheitskontrolle unterzogen, um Tiere mit Hinweis auf eine Störung im Herz-Kreislauf-System von der Studie ausschließen zu können. Desweiteren wurden verschiedene Größenparameter vermessen (Brustbeinlänge, Bauchlänge, Körpermasse), um die erhaltenen Ultraschall-Meßwerte in Relation zur Tiergröße zu vergleichen. Die Vögel wurden für die Untersuchung auf eine eigens konstruierte Fixationseinrichtung verbracht, und mit ebenfalls speziell für die Untersuchung entwickelten Elektroden wurde das Elektrokardiogramm abgeleitet. Dieses diente zur Triggerung von Endsystole und Enddiastole im Ultraschallbild. Die Untersuchung erfolgte mit einem elektronischen 6,5-MHz-Micro-Curved-Array-Schallkopf (betrieben auf 7,5 MHz) über eine Ankopplung in der Medianen unmittelbar hinter dem Brustbein; durch Rotation des Schallkopfes um 90° entstanden ein vertikaler und ein horizontaler Schnitt durch das Herz. Hinsichtlich der Darstellbarkeit des Herzens im Ultraschallbild zeigten sich deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den untersuchten Tiergruppen. Die Größe der Tiere spielte insofern eine Rolle, als daß bei den kleineren Vögeln eine entsprechende Ankopplung des verwendeten Schallkopfes schwierig war, deshalb konnte bei Psittaciformes in der Größe des Wellen- bzw. Mönchssittichs das Herz nicht dargestellt werden. Unabhängig von der Größe der Tiere zeigte sich aber auch eine speziesabhängige Schallbarkeit. Generell ließ sich bei den untersuchten Graupapageien und Amazonen das Herz gut darstellen, bei den Kakadus war die Darstellungsqualität dagegen wesentlich schlechter. Bei den untersuchten Tieren konnten abhängig von der Darstellungsqualität verschiedene Herzdimensionen vermessen werden. So ließen sich die Herzkammern sowie der linke Vorhof in der Länge und der Breite vermessen, außerdem das Interventrikularseptum und die Aorta. Da die Messungen sowohl in der Systole als auch in der Diastole durchgeführt wurden, konnten anhand der erhaltenen Werte verschiedene Parameter der Herzarbeit errechnet werden. Für mehrere wichtige Messungen konnten erstmals Referenzwerte aufgestellt werden, so z. B. für die Abmessungen der linken Kammer, den Aortendurchmesser und die Septum-Dicke. Viele der errechneten relativen Parameter wie z. B. die Verkürzungsfraktionen, die Relation zwischen der Breite und der Länge der Kammer sowie die Ejektionsfraktion der linken Kammer zeigten konstante körpergrößenunabhängige Werte bei allen untersuchten Tiergruppen. Für einen wichtigen Parameter der Herzgröße, nämlich die Länge der linken Herzkammer, wurde eine starke Abhängigkeit von der Brustbeinlänge und der Körpermasse gefunden. Bedingt dadurch und die speziesübergreifenden relativen Parameter können auch bei Psittaciformes, bei denen noch keine Daten über echokardiographische Untersuchungen vorliegen, die physiologische Herzgröße abgeschätzt und die Herzarbeit beurteilt werden. / The aim of the study was the echocardiographical examination of the heart in healthy psittacine birds, especially in African Grey parrots. Visualizable structures should be measured and – as far as possible – anatomical as well as physiological reference values should be established in order to get a basic knowledge for the evaluation of the heart in psittacines with signs of cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, the ultrasonographical presentability of the heart and its structures should be compared between various psittacines of different continents. For this purpose 110 psittaciformes were examined. All birds were examined clinically to exclude any bird from the study with signs of a disorder in the circulatory system. Additionally several parameters for the size of the birds were measured (sternal length, abdominal length, body mass) in order to set the ultrasonographical values obtained in relation to the animal size. For the examination, the birds were restrained on a specially constructed holding device; the electrocardiogram was recorded with likewise specially developed electrodes. The electrocardiogram served for triggering the endsystolic and the enddiastolic ultrasonographical image. The examination was done with an electronical 6.5 MHz micro-curved-array transducer (working frequency 7.5 MHz) which was coupled in the median directly behind the sternum. By turning the transducer about 90° a vertical and a horizontal view through the heart was obtained. Regarding the ultrasonographical presentability of the heart, clear differences between the examined species were evident. The animal size played a part to that extent that in smaller birds the appropriate coupling of the transducer used was difficult; therefore in psittacines with a size like the budgerigars or the monk parrots the heart could not be shown. Additionally there was a difference in the ultrasonographical presentability between the species independent of the birds size. Generally the heart could be well visualized in Amazons and African Grey parrots, whereas in cockatoos the imaging quality was substantially worse. With the examined animals several heart dimensions could be measured depending on the imaging quality. The ventricles as well as the left atrium could be measured lengthwise and in the width, furthermore the interventriculary septum and the aorta. Since the measurements were carried out both in systole and diastole, different parameters of the cardiac work could be calcuted on the basis of the obtained values. It was possible to establish reference values for several important parameters for the first time, e. g. for the length and the width of the left ventricle, the aortic diameter and the thickness of the interventriculary septum. Many of the calculated relative parameters, for example the fraction shortening, the relation between the width and the length of the ventricle as well as the ejection fraction of the left ventricle showed constant values in all examined groups, which were independent on the birds size. For an important parameter of the heart size, the length of the left ventricle, a strong correlation on the sternal length and the body mass could be found. Due to this dependence and the species-spreading relative parameters it is also possible to assess the physiological heart size and the cardiac work in psittacine birds, for which no reference values exist to date.

As aves representam a grande maioria das espécies da fauna silvestre mantidas como animais de companhia em nosso meio e respondem diretamente pela crescente demanda pelo atendimento médico veterinário. O avanço na área da anestesiologia viabilizou a realização de procedimentos cirúrgicos mais longos e complexos e contribuiu para o desenvolvimento e aprimoramento da técnica operatória em aves, contudo, dados nacionais de casuística relacionados às afecções cirúrgicas de aves ainda são inexistentes. Assim, este estudo avaliou retrospectivamente as operações realizadas em aves no Serviço de Cirurgia de Pequenos Animais do Hospital Veterinário da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo, entre janeiro de 2000 a junho de 2008, com o objetivo de identificar as afecções cirúrgicas, apresentar sua ocorrência e distribuição de freqüência segundo as ordens e espécies acometidas, avaliar as técnicas operatórias empregadas e comparar os dados obtidos com os achados da literatura. De um total de 90 operações realizadas para diagnóstico e/ou tratamento de afecções, 27 foram ortopédicas e 63 de tecidos moles. Quanto ao percentual de operações ortopédicas realizadas segundo as diferentes ordens, observou-se: Psittaciformes 85,19%, Piciformes 7,41%, Anseriformes 3,70% e Falconiformes 3,70%. Para as operações de tecidos moles os psitaciformes representaram 92,06%, columbiformes 3,17%, passeriformes 3,17% e anseriformes 1,59%. Entre os tipos de afecções ortopédicas encontradas as fraturas apresentaram a maior ocorrência (88,89%), seguidas de luxação (3,70%), avulsão traumática de extremidade (3,70%) e artrite/osteomielite (3,70%), o membro pélvico foi o mais acometido e o tibiotarso o osso mais fraturado. Dentre as afecções cirúrgicas de tecidos moles as neoplasias apresentaram a maior ocorrência (30,16%), seguida das neoformações cutâneas ou de anexos não neoplásicos (17,46%), neoformações cutâneas sem diagnóstico (7,94%), distocia (7,94%), fístula de papo (7,94%), hérnia abdominal (4,76%), sinusite (4,76%), gangrena de extremidade de membros (3,17%), perfuração de esôfago (3,17%), prolapso de cloaca (3,17%), Necrose avascular de dígito (1,59%), ferida na região da quilha (1,59%), perfuração de cavidade celomática (1,59%), neoformação em cavidade celomática sem diagnóstico (1,59%), corpo estranho em trato gastrointestinal (1,59%) e otite (1,59%). O lipoma foi a neoplasia e o cáseo a neoformação não neoplásica mais freqüentes. A distribuição das afecções cirúrgicas segundo as espécies acometidas mostrou o grupo dos papagaios, representado em sua maioria por espécies do gênero Amazona, como prevalente. A fixação interna com pino intramedular foi a técnica operatória mais utilizada nas afecções cirúrgicas ortopédicas e apresentou elevado índice de retorno à função para tratamento das fraturas. A exérese foi a técnica operatória mais utilizada nas afecções cirúrgicas de tecidos moles e mostrou índices elevados de cura e baixa ocorrência de recidivas. O conhecimento das afecções cirúrgicas e das espécies de aves mais acometidas, bem como dos resultados obtidos com as técnicas operatórias empregadas, acrescentam informações para aqueles que já atuam nesta área e servem como indicador de estudo para futuros cirurgiões de aves / Birds represent one of the main wildlife species kept as pets in our country and respond directly by the growing demand for health care veterinarian. Advancement in the field of anesthesiology has enabled the surgical procedures longer and more complex and contributed to the development and refinement of surgical technique in birds. However, national data series related to surgical disorders in birds are still poor. This study assessed retrospectively the avian operations at the Service of Small Animal Surgery - Veterinary Hospital of the School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of the University of São Paulo, from January 2000 to June 2008. The focus was to identify the surgical disorders, occurrence and frequency distribution according to orders and species affected, also we evaluated the surgical techniques employed and compared the results with the literature findings. A total of 90 operations were performed for diagnosis or treatment of surgical disorders. Of these 27 were orthopedic and 63 soft tissue surgeries. Considering the orthopedic surgeries performed according to orders we observed: Psittaciformes 85,19%, Piciformes 7,41%, Anseriformes 3,70% and Falconiformes 3,70%. And for the soft tissues operations the Psittaciformes represented 92,06%, Columbiformes 3,17%, Passeriformes 3,17% and Anseriformes 1,59%. Fractures presented the highest incidence among orthopedic disorders (88,89%), followed by luxation (3,70%), traumatic avulsion of the end (3,70%) and arthritis/osteomyelitis (3,70%). The pelvic limb was the most affected member and the tibiotarsus was the most commonly fractured bone. Among the surgical disorders of soft tissue, neoplasms accounted for 30,16%, followed by cutaneous neoformation or annexes nonneoplastic (17,46%), cutaneous neoformations undiagnosed (7,94%), dystocia (7,94%), fistula crop (7,94%), abdominal hernia (4,76%), sinusitis (4,76%), gangrene of the extremity members (3,17%), esophageal perforation (3,17%), prolapse of cloaca (3,17%), \"avascular necrosis of digit (1,59%), wound in the region of the keel (1,59%), perforation of the coelomic cavity (1,59%), neoformation in the coelomic cavity without a diagnosis (1,59%), foreign body in the gastrointestinal tract (1,59%) and otitis (1,59%). Lipoma and caseous were the most frequent cancer and non-neoplastic neoformation observed, respectively. The distribution of surgical disorders according to species affected showed that the \"group of parrots\", mainly represented by species of Amazonas genus, was prevalent. Internal fixation with intramedullary pin was the technique most often used in orthopedic surgical disorders and showed a high rate of recovery of limb function. The excision was the technique mostly used in the surgical disorders of soft tissue and presented high rates of cure and low recurrence. Knowledge of surgical and bird species most affected, and the results obtained with the surgical techniques employed, add information for those who works in this area and will be an indicator for future surgeons of birds

As aves representam a grande maioria das espécies da fauna silvestre mantidas como animais de companhia em nosso meio e respondem diretamente pela crescente demanda pelo atendimento médico veterinário. O avanço na área da anestesiologia viabilizou a realização de procedimentos cirúrgicos mais longos e complexos e contribuiu para o desenvolvimento e aprimoramento da técnica operatória em aves, contudo, dados nacionais de casuística relacionados às afecções cirúrgicas de aves ainda são inexistentes. Assim, este estudo avaliou retrospectivamente as operações realizadas em aves no Serviço de Cirurgia de Pequenos Animais do Hospital Veterinário da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia da Universidade de São Paulo, entre janeiro de 2000 a junho de 2008, com o objetivo de identificar as afecções cirúrgicas, apresentar sua ocorrência e distribuição de freqüência segundo as ordens e espécies acometidas, avaliar as técnicas operatórias empregadas e comparar os dados obtidos com os achados da literatura. De um total de 90 operações realizadas para diagnóstico e/ou tratamento de afecções, 27 foram ortopédicas e 63 de tecidos moles. Quanto ao percentual de operações ortopédicas realizadas segundo as diferentes ordens, observou-se: Psittaciformes 85,19%, Piciformes 7,41%, Anseriformes 3,70% e Falconiformes 3,70%. Para as operações de tecidos moles os psitaciformes representaram 92,06%, columbiformes 3,17%, passeriformes 3,17% e anseriformes 1,59%. Entre os tipos de afecções ortopédicas encontradas as fraturas apresentaram a maior ocorrência (88,89%), seguidas de luxação (3,70%), avulsão traumática de extremidade (3,70%) e artrite/osteomielite (3,70%), o membro pélvico foi o mais acometido e o tibiotarso o osso mais fraturado. Dentre as afecções cirúrgicas de tecidos moles as neoplasias apresentaram a maior ocorrência (30,16%), seguida das neoformações cutâneas ou de anexos não neoplásicos (17,46%), neoformações cutâneas sem diagnóstico (7,94%), distocia (7,94%), fístula de papo (7,94%), hérnia abdominal (4,76%), sinusite (4,76%), gangrena de extremidade de membros (3,17%), perfuração de esôfago (3,17%), prolapso de cloaca (3,17%), Necrose avascular de dígito (1,59%), ferida na região da quilha (1,59%), perfuração de cavidade celomática (1,59%), neoformação em cavidade celomática sem diagnóstico (1,59%), corpo estranho em trato gastrointestinal (1,59%) e otite (1,59%). O lipoma foi a neoplasia e o cáseo a neoformação não neoplásica mais freqüentes. A distribuição das afecções cirúrgicas segundo as espécies acometidas mostrou o grupo dos papagaios, representado em sua maioria por espécies do gênero Amazona, como prevalente. A fixação interna com pino intramedular foi a técnica operatória mais utilizada nas afecções cirúrgicas ortopédicas e apresentou elevado índice de retorno à função para tratamento das fraturas. A exérese foi a técnica operatória mais utilizada nas afecções cirúrgicas de tecidos moles e mostrou índices elevados de cura e baixa ocorrência de recidivas. O conhecimento das afecções cirúrgicas e das espécies de aves mais acometidas, bem como dos resultados obtidos com as técnicas operatórias empregadas, acrescentam informações para aqueles que já atuam nesta área e servem como indicador de estudo para futuros cirurgiões de aves / Birds represent one of the main wildlife species kept as pets in our country and respond directly by the growing demand for health care veterinarian. Advancement in the field of anesthesiology has enabled the surgical procedures longer and more complex and contributed to the development and refinement of surgical technique in birds. However, national data series related to surgical disorders in birds are still poor. This study assessed retrospectively the avian operations at the Service of Small Animal Surgery - Veterinary Hospital of the School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of the University of São Paulo, from January 2000 to June 2008. The focus was to identify the surgical disorders, occurrence and frequency distribution according to orders and species affected, also we evaluated the surgical techniques employed and compared the results with the literature findings. A total of 90 operations were performed for diagnosis or treatment of surgical disorders. Of these 27 were orthopedic and 63 soft tissue surgeries. Considering the orthopedic surgeries performed according to orders we observed: Psittaciformes 85,19%, Piciformes 7,41%, Anseriformes 3,70% and Falconiformes 3,70%. And for the soft tissues operations the Psittaciformes represented 92,06%, Columbiformes 3,17%, Passeriformes 3,17% and Anseriformes 1,59%. Fractures presented the highest incidence among orthopedic disorders (88,89%), followed by luxation (3,70%), traumatic avulsion of the end (3,70%) and arthritis/osteomyelitis (3,70%). The pelvic limb was the most affected member and the tibiotarsus was the most commonly fractured bone. Among the surgical disorders of soft tissue, neoplasms accounted for 30,16%, followed by cutaneous neoformation or annexes nonneoplastic (17,46%), cutaneous neoformations undiagnosed (7,94%), dystocia (7,94%), fistula crop (7,94%), abdominal hernia (4,76%), sinusitis (4,76%), gangrene of the extremity members (3,17%), esophageal perforation (3,17%), prolapse of cloaca (3,17%), \"avascular necrosis of digit (1,59%), wound in the region of the keel (1,59%), perforation of the coelomic cavity (1,59%), neoformation in the coelomic cavity without a diagnosis (1,59%), foreign body in the gastrointestinal tract (1,59%) and otitis (1,59%). Lipoma and caseous were the most frequent cancer and non-neoplastic neoformation observed, respectively. The distribution of surgical disorders according to species affected showed that the \"group of parrots\", mainly represented by species of Amazonas genus, was prevalent. Internal fixation with intramedullary pin was the technique most often used in orthopedic surgical disorders and showed a high rate of recovery of limb function. The excision was the technique mostly used in the surgical disorders of soft tissue and presented high rates of cure and low recurrence. Knowledge of surgical and bird species most affected, and the results obtained with the surgical techniques employed, add information for those who works in this area and will be an indicator for future surgeons of birds

Gefährdete Spezies in Menschenobhut zu reproduzieren und zu erhalten soll dem weltweiten Rückgang zahlreicher Papageienarten entgegenwirken. Der Erfolg solcher Zuchtprogramme wird unter anderem durch begrenzte Kenntnisse über physiologische und pathologische Vorgänge im Fortpflanzungssystem dieser Vogelordnung erschwert. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Etablierung aussagekräftiger Parameter zur Einordnung des Reproduktionsstatus von männlichen Papageienvögeln. Dabei wurde ein Probenumfang fixierter, männlicher Reproduktionsorgane acht verschiedener Gattungen mit standardisierten histologischen und immunzytochemischen Methoden untersucht. Im Vordergrund stand die morphologische Beurteilung der untersuchten Gonaden im Bezug auf Fortpflanzungsaktivität und -status. Gleichzeitig sollten die immunzytochemischen Analysen Aufschluss über die beteiligten Hormone und Enzyme geben. Für die Etablierung vogel-spezifischer Marker wurde als Vertreter der Psittaciformes der Wellensittich (Melopsittacus undulatus, n=45) als Modellspezies ausgewählt. 15 verschiedene Antikörper aus der Gruppe der Steroidrezeptoren, steroidogenen Enzyme, Relaxinpeptide und Proliferationsmarker wurden an dieser Art getestet. Anschließend erfolgte der Transfer der erarbeiteten Methodik auf sieben weitere Papageiengattungen (Nymphicus, Eolophus, Cacatua, Psittacus, Amazona, Ara, Cyanopsitta). Anhand der Histologie konnten alle untersuchten Gonaden den drei verschiedenen Reproduktionsstadien aktiv, intermediär und inaktiv zugeordnet werden. Hierbei wurden Kriterien wie die Ausdehnung von Samenkanälchen und Interstitium, Morphologie des Keimepithels, Vorhandensein von Lipofuszin in den Samenkanälchen sowie die Teilungsaktivität von Keimzellen herangezogen. Aktive Hoden zeigen ausgedehnte Tubuli und ein schmales Interstitium, ein Keimepithel mit allen Keimzellstadien, wenig Lipofuszin und eine hohe Teilungsaktivität bei den Keimzellen. Inaktive Hoden hingegen besitzen schmale Tubuli und ein breites Interstitium, ein Keimepithel bestehend aus Sertoli-Zellen und Spermatogonien, Massen an Lipofuszin im Lumen der Samenkanälchen und eine geringe Proliferationsrate der Keimzellen. 14 der 15 getesteten Marker konnten mittels Immunzytochemie erfolgreich am Wellensittich etabliert werden. Hinsichtlich der Einordnung des Reproduktionsstatus war in erster Linie ein Absinken der steroidogenen Enzymaktivität von 3β-Hydroxysteroid-Dehydrogenase (HSD) und 17β-HSD-2 bei sexuell inaktiven gegenüber aktiven und intermediären Tieren zu verzeichnen. Auch der Androgenrezeptor (AR) wurde im Ruhestadium nicht mehr exprimiert. Die übrigen Steroidrezeptoren, steroidogenen Enzyme und Relaxinpeptide zeigten variable zelluläre Verteilungsmuster, die keine klare Aussage zum Fortpflanzungsstatus zuließen. Dennoch konnten anhand der Lokalisation dieser Faktoren in Keimzellen, somatischen Zellen des Hodens und Zellen des Nebenhodenepithels funktionelle Gesichtspunkte geklärt werden. Beispielsweise zeigte die Koexistenz des Östrogenrezeptors ERα und des steroidogenen Enzyms Aromatase in Hoden und Nebenhoden, dass nicht nur androgene Einflüsse in die Steuerung der Gonaden involviert sind. Auch der erstmalige Nachweis von Relaxin, Relaxin-like factor und ihren Rezeptoren in testikulären und epididymalen Zellen deutet darauf hin, dass diese die Funktion der beim Vogel nicht vorhandenen Prostata übernehmen. Zudem ist der Transfer der etablierten immunzytochemischen Methoden auf sieben weitere Papageiengattungen (Nymphicus, Eolophus, Cacatua, Psittacus, Amazona, Ara, Cyanopsitta) gelungen. Auch hier konnten 14 Marker in verschiedenen Zellen von Hoden und Nebenhoden sichtbar gemacht werden. Die teilweise heterogene Verteilung der Marker in verschiedenen Zelltypen war eindeutig spezies-abhängig. Dies hat gezeigt, dass die beim Wellensittich mittels Immunzytochemie erzielten Resultate nur eingeschränkt auf andere Papageienspezies übertragbar sind. Entscheidend für die Beurteilung des Reproduktionsstatus ist daher die individuelle Auswahl der Marker in Abhängigkeit von der untersuchten Spezies. Die Resultate dieser Studie liefern die Grundlage für weitere Forschungsansätze in der Reproduktionsdiagnostik von Papageienvögeln. Zum einen können die etablierten Marker in Analyse-Systemen zum Einsatz kommen, die nicht-invasiv gewonnene Medien (z. B. Faezes) untersuchen und vor allem in Zuchterhaltungsprogrammen bedrohter Arten hilfreich sind. Zum anderen ist die immunzytochemische Untersuchung von Hodenbioptaten pathologisch veränderter Hoden (z. B. Tumoren oder Entzündungen) als eine sinnvolle Ergänzung der Diagnostik von Infertilität bei männlichen Psittaziden anzusehen.

Ecological immunology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary factors that explain variation in the function of, and investment in, the immune system. Within this field, reproduction-based trade-offs are an important focus, where studies often address the immunological costs associated with the expression of secondary sexual traits used in mate choice. Specifically, the Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis (ICHH) links the expression of secondary sexual traits to immune function, stating that testosterone promotes the expression of these traits while suppressing the immune system. In doing so, testosterone may maintain the honest expression of such traits, but also ultimately cause sex differences in immunity because males tend to have high levels of testosterone. I explore aspects of these topics using two model systems: the Psittaciformes (Parrots: Chapter 2) and the Charadriiformes (shorebirds), in particular the sex-role reversed Red phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius). In Chapter 2, I employed a phylogenetically informed approach to investigate the relationships among immune investment, plumage colouration and longevity in parrots. I found that immune investment was greater in more colourful species, as well as in those with a slower pace-of-life (i.e., longer incubation periods), but not specifically in those with longer lifespans. In Chapter 3, I investigated the role that reproductive behaviours play in determining sex differences in corticosterone levels. One explanation for sex differences in the stress response is that selection favours a reduced response in incubating birds to reduce nest abandonment. I generally found little support for sex differences in corticosterone being driven by behaviours related to incubation. Moreover, in phalaropes, sex differences in corticosterone were already present prior to incubation. In Chapter 4, I found that males have higher levels of testosterone than females, but that females were immunosuppressed compared to males. However, I found evidence that testosterone may regulate immune function in females, but not males. The observation of female-biased immunosuppression is consistent with Bateman’s Principle, and although there was some evidence of a testosterone-mediated handicap acting through immune function, these results attest to a fundamental lability in the relationship between testosterone and immunity. In Chapter 5, I demonstrated that plumage colouration in phalaropes is condition-dependent and so potentially conveys useful information to conspecifics. Yet, the relationship was negative in both sexes such that more colourful individuals had poorer immunocompetence, which was contrary to predictions. In Chapter 6, I demonstrated that phalaropes pair assortatively (positively) based on plumage colouration, but negatively based on aspects of size. I discuss the results of this dissertation in the light of life history theory, as well as in the context of mechanisms maintaining signal honesty.

Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, eine reproduzierbare Methode der Spermagewinnung bei Psittaciformes am Beispiel des Wellensittichs (Melopsittacus undulatus) zu entwickeln. Es sollten spermatologische Referenzwerte für diese Spezies erstellt werden, um eine erste Grundlage für deren Fruchtbarkeitsbeurteilung zu erhalten. Ferner sollten diese spermatologischen Parameter mit der endoskopischen Darstellung der Gonaden verglichen werden, um eine spezifische Beurteilungsmöglichkeit der Hodenaktivität abzuleiten. In den Vorversuchen wurden zunächst zwei verschiedene Methoden der Spermagewinnung am Wellensittich entwickelt. Die Kapillarmethode basiert auf der Entleerung der Samenspeicher (Glomus seminale) mittels einer in die Kloake eingeführten Glaskapillare. Die Massagemethode führt analog ihrer Anwendung beim Nutzgeflügel zu einer Ejakulation der Vögel. Bei beiden Techniken wurde das gewonnene Sperma in einer graduierten Glaskapillare aufgefangen. Im Vergleich der beiden verschiedenen Methoden der Spermagewinnung konnte gezeigt werden, dass hinsichtlich der höheren Spermienkonzentration und geringeren Verunreinigungen durch Erythrozyten und Urate die Massagemethode der Kapillarmethode deutlich überlegen war. Zusätzlich erwies sich die Massagemethode an versuchsfremden Wellensittichen als leicht durchführbar. Aus bereits vorliegenden Erkenntnissen über Psittaciformes konnte abgeleitet werden, dass mit der Massagetechnik innerhalb dieser Ordnung leicht Sperma gewonnen werden kann. In den verschiedenen Hauptversuchen wurde von 41 klinisch gesunden Wellensittichen aus zwei verschiedenen Zuchtformen regelmäßig mittels Massage Sperma gewonnen. Im ersten Teil wurden Proben von 19 Vermehrungszuchtwellensittichen und 10 Schauwellensittichen in zwei verschiedenen Absamintervallen spermatologisch untersucht. Die Farbe und das Volumen konnten direkt in der graduierten Glaskapillare abgelesen werden. Mittels Indikatorpapier wurde der pH-Wert bestimmt. Nach Anfärbung mit Eosin wurde für diese Ordnung erstmalig die Lebend-Tot-Rate der Spermatozoen im Ausstrich ermittelt. Im vorverdünnten Ejakulat wurde die Vorwärtsbeweglichkeit abgeschätzt. Die Dichtebestimmung wurde aus dem vorverdünnten Sperma mittels Kammerzählung bestimmt. Als Hilfswert wurde die Spermiengesamtzahl als das Produkt der Konzentration und dem Volumen berechnet. Im zweiten Hauptversuch wurden die Anteile missgebildeter Spermien nach Eosin-B-Färbung im Ejakulatausstrich von 12 weiteren Vermehrungszuchtwellensittichen bestimmt. Im letzten Versuchsteil wurde anhand der spermatologischen Ergebnisse von 37 Wellensittichen die aktuelle Hodenaktivität bestimmt und mit der endoskopischen Darstellung der Geschlechtsorgane dieser Vögel in Beziehung gesetzt. Insgesamt wiesen in den Hauptversuchsreihen sieben der 41 Vögel eine dauerhafte Azoospermie auf, ein weiterer zeigte eine hochgradige Teratozoospermie. In den erstellten Spermiogrammen des ersten Hauptversuchs wiesen beide Wellensittichrassen im 2-Tages-Absamintervall etwa die gleiche Spermiengesamtzahl auf. In der Verlängerung der Absampause von zwei auf sieben Tage stieg die Spermiengesamtzahl der ursprünglichen Vermehrungs-zuchtwellensittiche deutlicher als die der intensiv gezüchteten Schauwellensittiche. In beiden Versuchsgruppen vergrößerten sich jedoch weder das Volumen noch die Spermienkonzentration proportional zur Länge des Absamintervalls. Damit wurde offensichtlich, dass sich ein kurzes Absamintervall von 2-3 Tagen am ehesten für die Spermienanalyse und künstliche Besamung in der Ordnung der Papageienvögel eignet. Statistisch relevante Unterschiede konnten nicht für den pH-Wert und die Lebend-Tot-Rate bei den Zuchtformen nachgewiesen werden. Im zweiten Hauptversuch wurden die morphologischen Abweichungen der Spermien des Wellensittichs untersucht. Dabei dominierten Veränderungen des Spermienkopfes. Für Ziervögel wurde in den beiden Versuchen erstmalig nachgewiesen, dass die Mauser einen deutlich negativen Effekt auf die Spermaproduktion hat. Nach einem kurzen, aber deutlichen Anstieg zu Mauserbeginn erlosch die Spermienabgabe während der Mauserphase. Ebenfalls konnte in dieser Zeit eine Zunahme der Spermienmissbildungen festgestellt werden. Im Vergleich zwischen der endoskopischer Darstellung mit der Hodenaktivität konnte erstmalig nachgewiesen werden, dass die Form des Samenleiters das wichtigste Kriterium in der endoskopischen Aktivitätsbeurteilung ist, wobei der Samenleiter eines aktiven Hodens eine prallgefüllte, doppeltmäanderförmig geschlängelte Gestalt annimmt. Bestätigt werden konnte, dass aktive Hoden eine weißgraue Farbe aufweisen. Die Spermienproduktion zeigte eine signifikante Korrelation mit der Lage der kaudalen und nicht mit der kranialen Hodengrenze. Statt einer Zunahme konnte erstmalig aufgezeigt werden, dass die Gefäßzeichnung der Hoden eine geringfügige negative Korrelation mit der Aktivität aufweist. Aufgrund der anatomischen und physiologischen Verhältnisse bei anderen Ordnungen der Vögel ist möglicherweise davon auszugehen, dass sich diese Erkenntnisse artübergreifend anwenden lassen. / The aim of this study was to develop a technique of semen collection in Psittaciformes specifically in the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). In addition the investigation intended to establish sperm data as physiological reference values in order to get a basic understanding for reproductive assessment. These spermdata were then to be compared with the endoscopically determined status of the gonads, to establish a specific frame of reference for activity assessment. In the preliminary investigation two different methods of semen collection in budgerigars were developed and examined. The capillary-technique was based on an insertion of a glass capillary into the cloaca. In the course of this the semen storage (Glomus seminale) was squeezed. The massage-technique led - like in domestic-fowl - to an ejaculation of the birds. A graduated glass capillary was used to collect the released semen in both techniques. With this preliminary investigation it was shown, that semen obtained by massage technique was superior to semen obtained by capillary-technique because of the higher concentration of spermatozoa and the smaller contamination by urates and erythrocytes. In addition the massage technique was also proven on novice and untrained budgerigars. Altogether this study demonstrated that the massage technique can also be used efficiently for semen collection in the order Psittaciformes. In the main investigation the massage-stimulation was applied regularly to a total of 41 clinically healthy budgerigars of two different breeding lines. In a first phase samples were taken from 19 breeding-type budgerigars and 10 exhibition-type birds in two different collection-intervals. Colour and volume were determined directly from the glass-capillary. The pH value was measured with indicator paper. For this order for the first time the alive-dead ratio of the spermatozoa was counted via eosin staining. Forward motility was estimated in prediluted semen. In addition the sperm concentration was determined on prediluted semen via counting chamber. This lead directly to an estimate of the total sperm account. In the second part of the investigation morphologically abnormal spermatozoa of 12 further breeding-type budgerigars were classified via eosin staining and their frequency in percent was determined. In the last part of the investigation the actual testicle-activity based on these spermdata of 37 different budgerigars was compared with the endoscopically determined status of the gonads. Among the 41 budgerigars seven exhibited a permanent azoospermia. A further bird showed a constant teratozoospermia. For the two-day collection interval in the first main trial both breeding lines gave rise to approximately the same total sperm number. In extension from two to seven days collecting-interval total sperm account increased more for breeding-type than for exhibition-type birds. Besides this semen volume and sperm concentration did not increase proportionally with the extension of the interval. Thus a short collection-intervall of 2 or 3 days is most reliable for semen analysis and AI (artificial insemination) within this order. Neither pH or alive-dead ratio showed significantly differences in relation to the breeding-line and to the extension of the collection-interval. In the second part of the main investigation it was demonstrated, that malformation of the head-region dominate among morphological aberrant spermatozoa of this species. Both trials confirmed for the first time for pet-birds that moult reduces semen production significantly. Following a short increase, sperm production ceased during moulting. Additionally a significantly higher number of malformed spermatozoon’s were found. Comparing the testicle activity and status of the gonads endoscopically determined showed for the first time, that the appearance of the deferent duct is the most important criterion in endoscopic evaluation for gonadal activity. The duct of an active testicle appeared in a swollen, double-meander shape. This study also confirmed that active gonads appear whitish grey. For the endoscopic assessment of the testicular activity only the position of the caudal testicular boundary and not the cranial position was a significant criterion. With increasing sperm activity a slightly negatively correlated testicle blood vascularization could be demonstrated instead of an expected proportional increasing. Based on anatomical and physiological resemblances with other orders it is to be expected that results obtained by endoscopy may be applied to other species of birds as well.

Thousands of parrots all over the world suffer from illnesses and medical complications that can result from interactions between their immune system and bacteria in their digestive tract. The aim of this master's thesis is to understand the link between symptoms of these medical issues, the composition of blood and gastrointestinal microbiota in parrots. Using the hematological methods, 198 blood samples representing 53 parrot species were analyzed. The composition of microbiome was defined by combination of a molecular approach using bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing in 132 fecal samples, 12 intestine samples, 228 cloacal swabs and 236 beak swabs representing in total 61 parrot species and a diagnostic approach by psittacine fecal Gram's stain method. Significant association of hematological parameters with individual, environmental and clinical factors was observed, as well as its considerable interspecific variability. Absolute heterophile and lymphocyte counts have been shown more useful for infectious and autoimmune disease monitoring than H/L ratio. Relative numbers of basophiles were the best indicator for behavioral disorders. In relation to hematological parameters, the effect of the bacterial family Flavobacteriaceae, as part of the oral microbiota, and the bacteria Escherichia or...

Gefährdete Spezies in Menschenobhut zu reproduzieren und zu erhalten soll dem weltweiten Rückgang zahlreicher Papageienarten entgegenwirken. Der Erfolg solcher Zuchtprogramme wird unter anderem durch begrenzte Kenntnisse über physiologische und pathologische Vorgänge im Fortpflanzungssystem dieser Vogelordnung erschwert. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Etablierung aussagekräftiger Parameter zur Einordnung des Reproduktionsstatus von männlichen Papageienvögeln. Dabei wurde ein Probenumfang fixierter, männlicher Reproduktionsorgane acht verschiedener Gattungen mit standardisierten histologischen und immunzytochemischen Methoden untersucht. Im Vordergrund stand die morphologische Beurteilung der untersuchten Gonaden im Bezug auf Fortpflanzungsaktivität und -status. Gleichzeitig sollten die immunzytochemischen Analysen Aufschluss über die beteiligten Hormone und Enzyme geben. Für die Etablierung vogel-spezifischer Marker wurde als Vertreter der Psittaciformes der Wellensittich (Melopsittacus undulatus, n=45) als Modellspezies ausgewählt. 15 verschiedene Antikörper aus der Gruppe der Steroidrezeptoren, steroidogenen Enzyme, Relaxinpeptide und Proliferationsmarker wurden an dieser Art getestet. Anschließend erfolgte der Transfer der erarbeiteten Methodik auf sieben weitere Papageiengattungen (Nymphicus, Eolophus, Cacatua, Psittacus, Amazona, Ara, Cyanopsitta). Anhand der Histologie konnten alle untersuchten Gonaden den drei verschiedenen Reproduktionsstadien aktiv, intermediär und inaktiv zugeordnet werden. Hierbei wurden Kriterien wie die Ausdehnung von Samenkanälchen und Interstitium, Morphologie des Keimepithels, Vorhandensein von Lipofuszin in den Samenkanälchen sowie die Teilungsaktivität von Keimzellen herangezogen. Aktive Hoden zeigen ausgedehnte Tubuli und ein schmales Interstitium, ein Keimepithel mit allen Keimzellstadien, wenig Lipofuszin und eine hohe Teilungsaktivität bei den Keimzellen. Inaktive Hoden hingegen besitzen schmale Tubuli und ein breites Interstitium, ein Keimepithel bestehend aus Sertoli-Zellen und Spermatogonien, Massen an Lipofuszin im Lumen der Samenkanälchen und eine geringe Proliferationsrate der Keimzellen. 14 der 15 getesteten Marker konnten mittels Immunzytochemie erfolgreich am Wellensittich etabliert werden. Hinsichtlich der Einordnung des Reproduktionsstatus war in erster Linie ein Absinken der steroidogenen Enzymaktivität von 3β-Hydroxysteroid-Dehydrogenase (HSD) und 17β-HSD-2 bei sexuell inaktiven gegenüber aktiven und intermediären Tieren zu verzeichnen. Auch der Androgenrezeptor (AR) wurde im Ruhestadium nicht mehr exprimiert. Die übrigen Steroidrezeptoren, steroidogenen Enzyme und Relaxinpeptide zeigten variable zelluläre Verteilungsmuster, die keine klare Aussage zum Fortpflanzungsstatus zuließen. Dennoch konnten anhand der Lokalisation dieser Faktoren in Keimzellen, somatischen Zellen des Hodens und Zellen des Nebenhodenepithels funktionelle Gesichtspunkte geklärt werden. Beispielsweise zeigte die Koexistenz des Östrogenrezeptors ERα und des steroidogenen Enzyms Aromatase in Hoden und Nebenhoden, dass nicht nur androgene Einflüsse in die Steuerung der Gonaden involviert sind. Auch der erstmalige Nachweis von Relaxin, Relaxin-like factor und ihren Rezeptoren in testikulären und epididymalen Zellen deutet darauf hin, dass diese die Funktion der beim Vogel nicht vorhandenen Prostata übernehmen. Zudem ist der Transfer der etablierten immunzytochemischen Methoden auf sieben weitere Papageiengattungen (Nymphicus, Eolophus, Cacatua, Psittacus, Amazona, Ara, Cyanopsitta) gelungen. Auch hier konnten 14 Marker in verschiedenen Zellen von Hoden und Nebenhoden sichtbar gemacht werden. Die teilweise heterogene Verteilung der Marker in verschiedenen Zelltypen war eindeutig spezies-abhängig. Dies hat gezeigt, dass die beim Wellensittich mittels Immunzytochemie erzielten Resultate nur eingeschränkt auf andere Papageienspezies übertragbar sind. Entscheidend für die Beurteilung des Reproduktionsstatus ist daher die individuelle Auswahl der Marker in Abhängigkeit von der untersuchten Spezies. Die Resultate dieser Studie liefern die Grundlage für weitere Forschungsansätze in der Reproduktionsdiagnostik von Papageienvögeln. Zum einen können die etablierten Marker in Analyse-Systemen zum Einsatz kommen, die nicht-invasiv gewonnene Medien (z. B. Faezes) untersuchen und vor allem in Zuchterhaltungsprogrammen bedrohter Arten hilfreich sind. Zum anderen ist die immunzytochemische Untersuchung von Hodenbioptaten pathologisch veränderter Hoden (z. B. Tumoren oder Entzündungen) als eine sinnvolle Ergänzung der Diagnostik von Infertilität bei männlichen Psittaziden anzusehen.