Evidence from research and clinical work supports the notion that social relationships play a crucial role in many areas of psychological development. Social withdrawal constitutes a form of social maladjustment in childhood, and consequently, may have important implications for short-term and long-term prognoses. A recent longitudinal study points to the possibility that these children are at risk for internalizing disorders, such as anxiety and depression. Yet it is unclear which psychological variables account for the possible relationship between social withdrawal and internalizing disorders. Numerous theorists and investigators have shown that cognitive factors may be central to the development of psychopathology. The present study hypothesizes that maladaptive information processing and internalizing problems may be associated with social withdrawal. A multi-group comparison therefore examined children's self-schemas, as measured by self-perceptions and recall of positive and negative descriptors, and evaluated their behavioural/emotional functioning. The complete sample consisted of 132 sixth and seventh grade children recruited from five elementary schools in the Ottawa-Carleton region. After being identified by peer nominations in Phase 1, a between-group design was utilized in Phase 2 to compare 40 withdrawn children, 51 average children, and 41 aggressive children. Multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to assess group differences in current status with regard to self-perceptions, recall memory of descriptors, and behavioural adjustment. As predicted, socially withdrawn children had less positive self-perceptions, more negative self-perceptions, and significantly higher internalizing scores than did average and aggressive children. No significant differences emerged, however, with respect to the recall of positive and negative descriptors. Implications of the present findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Mainstream psychological research has paid insufficient attention to how women sexually abused in childhood live their intimate adult relationships, and even less to the mutual experience of both partners and the potential for healing within relationship. This empirical-phenomenological study is based upon the written and oral accounts of two couples, who had been in committed relationships for at least five years and where the women had been abused by their fathers in childhood. Following the rigorous and systematic phenomenological method devised by Giorgi (1985), the study explicates and articulates the subjective and intersubjective meaning-structures of how these two couples live relationally with the aftermath of child sexual abuse. The phenomenological analysis resulted in six situated structures for the four individuals and two couples. Further reflection upon these situated structures revealed a matrix of four major interrelated themes common to the experience of both women in our study. These themes were: living a life-world pervaded by embodied vulnerability, insecurity and fear; tenuous-being-in-control and being-all-responsible; embodied suffering; and, existential aloneness--the last three were also found to be dialectically related. These themes were interrelated in a compellingly repetitive pattern which further elaborated the temporal dimension of how the women's abusive pasts continue to re-invade their present existences. Three dialectically related themes emerged for the two men in the study: Caring, feeling-controlled, and putting-aside of self and restriction-of-life-world. When woven together, the themes for the women and the men formed a matrix of dialectically and/or responsively related themes for the couples. Despite serious difficulties, these couples were managing to preserve the resilient structures of their relationships. Our analysis showed that they were struggling toward subjective and intersubjective transformation. Furthermore, the analysis suggested that the theme of transformation was being manifested through the communication of shared understanding, and through seeking mutuality in caring for the being and becoming of both self and other. The unique findings of this phenomenological study fundamentally extend beyond previous understandings of how the aftermath of child sexual abuse is lived in adult intimate relationships.

Group polarization is a phenomenon in which moderate attitudes or opinions espoused by a social group tend to become more extreme in the course of interactions and discussions within the group. Using a modified form of the group polarization paradigm, the present study examined the conditions under which group polarization or related phenomena may operate within correctional treatment or discussion groups to inadvertently foster the amplification of procriminal attitudes or beliefs. Inmates at a correctional treatment facility were assigned to small discussion groups on the basis of their pre-experimental scores on psychometric tests measuring either identification with the inmate code (High vs. Low Inmate Solidarity) or antisocial/prosocial personality traits (High vs. Low Criminality). Each group then engaged in brief discussions of (a) topics preselected to elicit or trigger categorizations along a prosocial-procriminal dimension ("prototypical" topics), and (b) neutral topics. Group-mediated attitudinal shifts were affected by both the type of group composition and by the discussion topic. Only homogeneous groups of High Inmate Solidarity subjects showed significant strengthening of procriminal attitudes and this was the case only for discussions of prototypical topics, not for neutral topics. All other group compositions tended to exhibit shifts toward the mid-point of the rating (i.e., more neutral or ambivalent post-discussion attitudes), regardless of the type of topic discussed. The results are interpreted as providing evidence for Self-Categorization Theory, which posits that group-mediated attitude change is a phenomenon of conformity to local ingroup norms--representing what group members perceive to be the group consensus--and factors influencing the salience of ingroup-outgroup categorizations or group identity. The clinical implications of these findings for correctional treatment groups and implications for future research are discussed.

Swann's (1983, 1987, 1990) self-verification theory assumes that people are invested in preserving a stable and unchanging sense of self, and that they do so by interacting with others who treat them in a manner consistent with their sense of self. Deci and Ryan's (1985, 1987, 1991) self-determination theory assumes that people are intrinsically oriented towards seeking growth and progressive change in their sense of self, and that it is by interacting with others who support their autonomy that these growth strivings are best satisfied. Two pilot studies and three full-scale studies tested (a) whether self-consistency versus self-growth needs govern people's preferences for who they interact with, and (b) the kinds of consequences that ensue from such interactions. Globally, we hypothesized that if Swann's self-verification theory holds true, self-determined individuals will prefer to interact with others who are also self-determined in their motivation, and who are autonomy-supportive in their interpersonal style. Nonself-determined individuals, on the other hand, will prefer interactions with others who are nonself-determined in their motivation, and rather directive and controlling in their interpersonal style. By contrast, we anticipated that if Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory holds true, all persons, regardless of their motivational orientation, will prefer to interact with others who are relatively self-determined in their motivation and autonomy-supportive in their interpersonal style. In line with Swann's self-verification theory, results of Pilot Study 2, Study 2, and Study 3 indicated that subjects preferred to interact with others who were similar to themselves. Specifically, when we examined the similarity between university students and their two closest university friends in terms of their motivation for attending school, findings indicated that self-determined students preferred to associate with friends who were significantly more self-determined than the friends of nonself-determined students (Pilot Study 2, Study 2). Similarly, when we examined married and common-law couples' motivation for being involved in their relationship, a significant correlation emerged between their motivational orientations (Study 3). In both cases, the pattern of results held up whether we considered actual motivation similarity or perceived motivation similarity between subjects and their relationship partners. Despite the fact that subjects chose to affiliate with others similar to themselves, results of Pilot Study 1, Study 1, and Study 3, revealed that such types of interactions were not the kind that subjects would prefer to have, nor the kind that were associated with superior relationship outcomes. In line with Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory, when students were presented with descriptions of two types of teaching styles--one autonomy-supportive, the other directive and controlling--students of both motivational orientations indicated a clear preference for the autonomy-supportive teaching style (Pilot Study 1, Study 1). When asked which of the two teaching styles they considered to be more effective, students again judged the autonomy-supportive teaching style to be superior (Study 1). Finally, when couples were asked to rate the quality of their relationship, they reported greater adaptiveness in their couple behaviors, more commitment towards their relationship, and higher levels of happiness within their relationship to the extent that their motivation towards the relationship was self-determined and that their partner was perceived to be autonomy-supportive (Study 3). Results are discussed in terms of reconciling this apparent difference between what people seem to want (self-growth) and what people seem to do (self-consistency).

This thesis explores the interpersonal and situational dynamics of hostage negotiation situations through an analysis of responses to a survey. A brief historical overview is presented which provides the reader with information regarding hostage takings and the various responses employed by authorities in the past. Hostage negotiation tactics in North America were first developed by Frank Bolz and Harvey Schlossberg, veterans of the New York City Police Department. From these beginnings, police departments developed and trained their officers to become hostage negotiators. A review of the academic literature in Canada and the United States provides information on various approaches researchers have employed when studying hostage negotiations. Negotiation processes, efficacy of negotiations, and officer suitability are subjects included in the review. The findings indicate that 70% of hostage-takings are of a domestic nature and that the majority of hostages taken are women and children. The hostage-takers are predominantly male and are normally known or related to the hostage. In cases where poor communications, and/or an escalated threat developed, the outcome usually ended in an assault. In cases where there was a previous association between a hostage-taker and a member of the negotiating party, or when a suspect had a previous criminal record, negotiations had a higher probability of resulting in a peaceful outcome. A central problem in police negotiation strategies consists in identifying and classifying the hostage takers. Once this has been accomplished, an appropriate communication strategy can then be devised and implemented. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the results and recommendations for future negotiation strategies and training in the area of hostage-taking. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

The focus of this study was on determining which reasons for attending a golf event influenced spectator's decisions to attend the LPGA DuMaurier Classic 'major' golf event as well as to determine what, if any, sport spectatorship theories could be used to explain golf spectatorship. A questionnaire comprised of a demographic section and 27 attendance reasons was completed by 957 spectators using the spectator intercept method. It was predicted that Entertainment theories would best explain golf spectatorship. It was hypothesized that to see the finesse of shotmaking, to see live action and to see the best perform would be in the top ten reasons of the total sample, as it was in previous studies; and that male and female spectators, the four categories of golf playing frequency spectators, and weekday and weekend spectators would focus on different aspects of the golf spectating experience. All four hypotheses were supported by the results of the analyses. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

The report contains a review of the literature related to Byrne's (1971) attraction paradigm, Rokeach's (1973) theory of human values, and the relationship of value consensus to marital adjustment. A void in the literature was found in two areas: (1) the effect of terminal and instrumental value system similarity on attributed marital adjustment, and (2) the effects of various degrees of value system similarity on attributed marital adjustment. The present study was designed to investigate those areas. A simulated design was utilized wherein the effects of three independent variables on attributed marital adjustment were investigated. The three independent variables were sex of subjects with two levels, value type with two levels (terminal and instrumental), and degree of similarity of the value profiles of a "bogus couple" with three levels (22% similar, 50% similar, and 77% similar). A total of 447 undergraduate students served as subjects. A packet, containing the value profiles of two couples, questions about the marital adjustment of each couple and a posttest questionnaire, was administered to each subject. The major statistical analysis consisted of fourteen 2 X 3 X 2 analyses of variance. The results indicated that in all cases degree of similarity was a highly significant main effect. Post hoc analyses specified that, generally, a linear relationship was present between degree of similarity and attributed marital adjustment. A significant main effect for value type was not found. Results from the post-test questionnaire are also presented. An interesting finding was that both males and females rated value similarity as important in marital happiness, although females rated it as more important than did males. The results are discussed in terms of an extension of Byrne's (1971) attraction paradigm, limitations of the study in terms of generalizability, and the lack of a significant main effect for value type. Conclusions and directions for future research are also included.

The purpose of this study is to compare two humanistic viewpoints regarding six selected administrative concerns. Abraham Maslow and Jacques Maritain have been designated as the subjects of this project. The specific intention of this study is to compare Maslow's and Maritain's thinking in its evolved state about a set of six selected administrative factors. This thesis attempts to respond to the following questions. (1) Are there points of congruency in the comparison between Maslow's and Maritain's observations regarding the six selected administrative concerns? (2) Are there differences noted in the comparison between Maslow's and Maritain's observations regarding the six selected administrative concerns? Concurrent themes which emerge from their observations about the particular concept examined are also appraised for congruency and differences. Chapter one reveals that the concepts of man that Maslow and Maritain formulate are not identical. They use similar terms in describing man's characteristics and emphasize the same qualities in dipscussing his uniqueness. However, their interpretations of these ideas are different. Despite this fact, both authors view man as a unique creature endowed with singular qualities. In chapter two, the concept of interaction is examined in terms of communication and relationships. Maslow and Maritain agree that relationships are co-natural to man; that interactions foster growth; that negative results stem from a lack of healthy interactions; that communication is a means of exerting an influence on people; and that friendship serves as a model for good interpersonal relationships. However, Maritain alone attributes ethical considerations to human interaction. It is noted that although there is agreement regarding observations, the explanations of the ideas are different. In chapter three, the concept of participation is compared. Maslow and Maritain support the ideas that the members of an organization should participate in regulating its affairs, and that participation in these matters could be valid growth experiences. However, Maslow views partnership as a feeling experienced by employees as a consequence of participation, while Maritain conceives it as a real alliance which provides avenues for participation. In chapter four, the concept of leadership is compared. Maslow and Maritain concur in defining the role of the humanistic leader, they agree that the leadership function entails maintaining a viable organization and advancing the welfare of workers. They concur in stating that leadership requires specific characteristics along with a commitment. They agree also, that it is possible to identify the ideal leader and that the leader should be able to confront the changing future. In all these conclusions the authors' explanations of their views differ. In chapter five, the comparison is about the concept of authority. Maslow and Maritain endorse the democratic concept of governance and management. They concur that the prime characteristic of the democratic concept is human concern, and that autocratic forms of governance deny a person his dignity. They agree also that the leader is the person who has authority and that a democratic commitment is a necessary part of the leadership requirement. In those areas of congruency it appears that the observations of each are based on different premises. In chapter six the comparison is with reference to the concept of incentives. The thinking of the authors is congruent in stating that incentives extend beyond monetary considerations; that a good healthy organizational climate is a valid work incentive; and that fellowship is also a legitimate human incentive. They disagree about the influence of capitalism on the availability and kinds of inducements. It also appears that the authors' explanations of their positions differ. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Youth are seen as existing in a psycho-social moratorium and seem to be becoming increasingly alienated from our society. Rotter suggests that alienation is related to the variable of internal-external control. Rotter operationalizes his theory in research, but he does not provide an etiology for alienation. Upon examining Rotter's and Keniston's theories, it has been concluded that the two theories are similar, and that Keniston's formulations could be used to extend Rotter's theory by providing it with an etiology. Keniston believes that three societal forces are needed for the development of powerfulness in youth; these forces are presented in detail in this report. The Venturer program of Boy Scouts of Canada is presented as a possible recreational program that helps to develop powerfulness in youth. The program is then considered in light of Keniston's three societal forces, and it is concluded that Venturing does seem to have the necessary elements for the development of powerfulness. Using scores on Rotter's Internal Versus External Control Scale as the dependent variable, the hypothesis teated at the .05 level of significance was that participation in the Venturer program results in greater powerfulness than non-participation in the Venturer program. The research involved a pre-test/post-test design with forty-four Venturers and one hundred six non-Venturers from a large suburban community in Southern Ontario. The results indicated that youth joining the Venturer program have a significantly higher degree of powerfulness when joining Venturers, and also, when the initial difference is statistically controlled with a test of covariance, there is a significant difference in powerfulness between Venturers and non-Venturers over a thirteen month period. This report is of particular importance as it supports the contention that youth participating in the Venturer program develop powerfulness. The rationale for this increase in powerfulness is due to the presence of Keniston's three societal forces. This report also shows how Keniston's etiology of alienation is actually an extension of Rotter's locus of control theory. The findings herein indicate that Venturing is a valuable recreational program that can provide a basis for practical work with adolescents. 1 Gordon H. Hanna, master's thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of the University of Ottawa, Ontario, September, 1976, 128 p.

This study is concerned with the accuracy of affective communication by means of voice qualities, with a special focus on cross-cultural affective transmission. Spontaneous expressions of love, anger, sadness, and happiness, elicited from three English- and three French-speaking amateur actresses, were tape-recorded. The resulting tape was passed through an electronic filter to render it content-free. The subjects were 17 English-Canadian and 17 French-Canadian female Introductory Psychology students chosen from a larger group of volunteers on the basis of specific criterion responses to a biographical questionnaire, who received two marks for participation. Using the facilities of a language laboratory, the two groups of subjects were each exposed to the instrument on two occasions, in order to ensure its reliability. Subjects recorded their judgments concerning the affective stimuli on multiple-choice response forms, and the contrasts between the responses of the two groups were compared. The significantly greater accuracy of the English subjects on overall judgment of the emotions expressed by all speakers was in a direction contrary to the first hypothesis, which predicted a superiority in the decoding ability of the French-Canadian subjects for both English- and French-language affective stimuli. The second hypothesis, which postulated the superiority in encoding of emotions by the French-Canadian speakers, was also called into question by the finding that, while the French affective stimuli were identified by both English and French subjects with a similar level of accuracy, the English-speaking subjects were significantly more accurate than the French-speaking in judgments of the English emotional expressions. Sources of significant variations are discussed, with specific consideration of the contributions of differential efficacy of vocal cues in expressing specific emotions; individual differences in ability to encode affective communications by means of voice; and the possible influence of stereotypical modes of vocal communication of emotions, either innately formed or linked to socially learned cultural expressive modes, which may differentially influence the accuracy of affective communication across cultural/linguistic barriers.